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Humphries M, Benitez-Nelson N, Combrink X. Trace Metal Accumulation in Eggs of Wild Nile Crocodiles (Crocodylus niloticus) from Lake St Lucia, South Africa: Implications for Biomonitoring in a Global Biodiversity Hotspot. ARCHIVES OF ENVIRONMENTAL CONTAMINATION AND TOXICOLOGY 2022; 83:214-225. [PMID: 36171509 DOI: 10.1007/s00244-022-00960-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2022] [Accepted: 09/17/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
Nile crocodiles (Crocodylus niloticus) at Lake St Lucia, South Africa, have some of the highest blood lead (Pb) concentrations ever recorded in wildlife globally. Although exposure to Pb is known to pose major risks to wildlife reproductive success, potential impacts on crocodile reproduction at Lake St Lucia have yet to be examined. In this study, we investigated the accumulation of Pb and other trace metals (Al, V, Cr, Co, Cu, Ni, Zn and Cd) in eggs (n = 20) collected from five wild crocodile nests at Lake St Lucia. All metals analysed in this study were detected in egg contents, although concentrations varied considerably among nests and within clutches. Lead was detected in the contents of all eggs, but only at relatively low concentrations (43 ± 26 ng g-1 dry weight). Although sampling limitations commonly associated with wild population surveys prevent a complete assessment of exposure variability, our findings suggest maternal transfer may not be a significant depuration pathway for Pb and females possibly clear Pb through other mechanisms (e.g. sequestration into claws, bone and osteoderms). Metal concentrations in eggshells and shell membranes were poorly correlated with concentrations measured in egg content and thus do not provide viable non-lethal indicators for monitoring metal exposure in Nile crocodiles. Intra-clutch variability accounted for a considerable proportion of the total variance in egg content metal concentrations, suggesting the "one egg" sampling strategy often applied in reptile studies may not be an effective biomonitoring tool for wild crocodilian populations. Although maternally derived Pb does not appear to present widespread toxicological concern at Lake St Lucia, adverse effects of Pb exposure on other reproductive functions (e.g. spermatogenesis) cannot be discounted and warrant further investigation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marc Humphries
- School of Chemistry, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa.
| | - Noah Benitez-Nelson
- School of Chemistry, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa
| | - Xander Combrink
- Department of Nature Conservation, Tshwane University of Technology, Pretoria, South Africa
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Humphries M, Myburgh J, Campbell R, Combrink X. High lead exposure and clinical signs of toxicosis in wild Nile crocodiles (Crocodylus niloticus) from a World Heritage site: Lake St Lucia estuarine system, South Africa. CHEMOSPHERE 2022; 303:134977. [PMID: 35595117 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2022.134977] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/07/2022] [Revised: 05/11/2022] [Accepted: 05/12/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Lead (Pb) exposure is a widespread wildlife conservation threat, but impacts on reptile populations remain poorly documented. In this study, we examined Pb exposure and accumulation in a wild population of Nile crocodiles (Crocodylus niloticus) at Lake St Lucia, South Africa. Recreational angling has occurred in the area since the 1930s and incidental ingestion of Pb fishing weights has previously been identified as a major source of Pb poisoning in the local crocodile population. In 2019, we sampled blood and tail fat tissues from wild (n = 22) and captive (n = 3) crocodiles at Lake St Lucia to investigate potential impacts of chronic Pb exposure on crocodilian health. Lead was detected in blood samples of all wild crocodiles, although concentrations varied widely between individuals (86-13,100 ng ml-1). The incidence of Pb poisoning was higher in male crocodiles, with mean blood lead (BPb) concentrations in males (3780 ± 4690 ng ml-1) significantly (p < 0.001) higher compared to females (266 ± 230 ng ml-1). Blood Pb concentrations were correlated with concentrations measured in tail fat tissue (n.d - 4175 ng g-1 wet wt.). Although most of the crocodiles sampled appeared to be in good physical condition, highly elevated BPb concentrations (>6000 ng ml-1) were associated with markedly suppressed packed cell volumes (4.6-10.8%) and severe deterioration in tooth condition. These findings suggest that anaemia and tooth loss may be clinical signs of long-term environmental exposure to Pb. Although previously undocumented in crocodilians, these symptoms are consistent with Pb poisoning observed in birds and mammals, and suggest that crocodilians may be more susceptible to the long-term toxic effects of Pb than previously thought. In light of these findings, we suggest that the impact of accumulated Pb on crocodilian fitness, reproduction and mortality requires urgent attention.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marc Humphries
- School of Chemistry, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa.
| | - Jan Myburgh
- Department of Paraclinical Sciences, Faculty of Veterinary Science, University of Pretoria, South Africa
| | - Robert Campbell
- National Zoological Garden, South African National Biodiversity Institute, Pretoria, South Africa
| | - Xander Combrink
- Department of Nature Conservation, Tshwane University of Technology, South Africa
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Webster AB, Ganswindt A, Small C, Rossouw R. Optimised ICP-MS quantification method for using animal faeces as a measure of protected area ecosystem health. MethodsX 2021; 8:101441. [PMID: 34430330 PMCID: PMC8374655 DOI: 10.1016/j.mex.2021.101441] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/20/2021] [Accepted: 07/02/2021] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Pollution is a key threat to biodiversity and ecosystem health within protected areas. Using a non-invasive, multi-matrix approach, sediment, vegetation and faecal material from lion (Panthera leo) and giraffe (Giraffa camelopardalis) were collected and assessed for the simultaneous quantification of 20 trace elements using an optimised method for Inductively Coupled Plasma--Mass Spectrometry (ICP-MS). Method Linearity was confirmed over an analytical range of 0.1-50 mg/kg for aluminium (Al) and iron (Fe); 0.4-400 µg/kg for vanadium (V), cobalt (Co), molybdenum (Mo), and cadmium (Cd); 0.5-5 µg/kg for mercury (Hg); and 1-1 000 µg/kg for elements arsenic (As), boron (B), barium (Ba), chromium (Cr), copper (Cu), manganese (Mn), nickel (Ni), lead (Pb), antimony (Sb), selenium (Se), tin (Sn), strontium (Sr) and zinc (Zn). Coefficient of determination (R2) was above 0.99 for all elements. Accuracy (% recovery) and precision (% RSD) of replicate measurements for certified reference material controls fell within 20% of expected value at lower concentrations and 15% at higher concentrations for all elements except Al. Results for instrument and method limit of detections (LOD), method limit of quantification (LOQ) and expanded uncertainty were satisfactory. Preliminary data indicate As, Cd, Cr, Cu, Hg, Ni, Pb, Se, and Zn were present in all matrices evaluated. This raises concerns regarding the combined action of multiple elements at concentrations that can adversely affect ecosystem and wildlife integrity.•Sample quantity is reduced due to the power and sensitivity of ICP-MS.•The optimised method is capable of detecting differences in trace element concentrations over large orders of magnitude in animal faeces containing different amounts of organic content.•The method can be applied to the quantification of essential and potentially toxic elements in faeces across a wide range of terrestrial species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrea B Webster
- Mammal Research Institute, Department of Zoology and Entomology, University of Pretoria, Lynwood Road, Hatfield, Pretoria, 0083, South Africa
| | - Andre Ganswindt
- Mammal Research Institute, Department of Zoology and Entomology, University of Pretoria, Lynwood Road, Hatfield, Pretoria, 0083, South Africa
| | - Charney Small
- Central Analyticl Facilities, ICP-MS Laboratory, University of Stellenbosch, Cnr Ryneveld and Merriman Street, Stellenbosch, 7600, South Africa
| | - Riana Rossouw
- Central Analyticl Facilities, ICP-MS Laboratory, University of Stellenbosch, Cnr Ryneveld and Merriman Street, Stellenbosch, 7600, South Africa
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Dos Santos RL, de Sousa Correia JM, Dos Santos EM. Freshwater aquatic reptiles (Testudines and Crocodylia) as biomonitor models in assessing environmental contamination by inorganic elements and the main analytical techniques used: a review. ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING AND ASSESSMENT 2021; 193:498. [PMID: 34287720 DOI: 10.1007/s10661-021-09212-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/02/2021] [Accepted: 06/12/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Despite the general lack of studies that use reptiles as bioindicators, the value of freshwater turtles and crocodilians in ecotoxicology has been proven, due to their importance as sentinel species. The aim of this study was to compile information on the use of freshwater turtles and crocodilians as environmental biomonitors of inorganic element contamination. We searched for articles in databases using specific keywords. A total of 104 studies published between the years 1970 and 2020 were collected. We noted a general increase in the number of studies involving turtles and crocodilians during the study time period. The Order Testudines were the subjects of 46% of the analysed publications, and the Order Crocodylia accounted for 54%. Within these studies, we counted 39 species (turtles n = 29 and crocodilians n = 10). Forty chemical elements were evaluated in the analysed articles, of which the majority represented non-essential elements (Hg, Cd, Pb). Although internal organs constituted the main biological matrix chosen for each group (37%), we observed an increase in the use of non-destructive matrices in both groups (scale, blood, tail muscle, carapace). The majority of analysed studies used HNO3 for the sample decomposition, with the majority of analyses being performed using atomic absorption spectroscopy (53%). Mainly blank controls (19%), analyte recovery (18%) and replicates (18%) were used as methods of validating analytical procedures. Furthermore, the studies used certified reference materials, which measure the accuracy of the methods used. We conclude that the increase in the use of aquatic reptiles in environmental monitoring research is mainly due to their ability to reveal integrated changes in ecosystems, aiding in environmental public policy decision-making and effective management plans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rayssa Lima Dos Santos
- Programa de Pós-Graduação em Biodiversidade e Conservação, Av. Gregório Ferraz Nogueira, Universidade Federal Rural de Pernambuco, Serra Talhada, PE, Brazil.
| | | | - Ednilza Maranhão Dos Santos
- Departamento de Biologia, Universidade Federal Rural de Pernambuco, Rua Manoel de Medeiros, Recife, PE, Brazil
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Gerber R, Bouwman H, Govender D, Ishizuka M, Ikenaka Y, Yohannes YB, Smit NJ, Wepener V. Levels of DDTs and other organochlorine pesticides in healthy wild Nile crocodiles (Crocodylus niloticus) from a flagship conservation area. CHEMOSPHERE 2021; 264:128368. [PMID: 33007566 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2020.128368] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/12/2020] [Revised: 09/14/2020] [Accepted: 09/15/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Mass Nile crocodile (Crocodylus niloticus) deaths in Africa's premier conservation area, the Kruger National Park (KNP), prompted numerous studies to determine possible causes of the sudden die-offs. The majority highlighted the involvement of the anthropocene to crocodile mass mortalities. One of the potential causative agents was identified as legacy compounds such as organochlorine pesticides (OCPs) present in the various aquatic ecosystems of the KNP. Thus, this study aimed to quantify OCP levels in wild crocodiles from the aquatic systems associated with the KNP. As part of a larger study, muscle tissue samples were collected from tails of 12 wild crocodiles. Results indicated that eight of the 19 OCPs analysed for were quantifiable. These included DDTs (2130-167968 ng/g lw), chlordanes (BD - 7583 ng/g lw) and cyclodeines (BD - 872 ng/g lw). Measured concentrations indicated spatial- and sex-related differences in accumulation patterns. DDT and its metabolites, paricularly p,p'-DDE accumulated to the highest concentrations of the OCP groups. Levels of the different groups of OCPs were the highest recorded in recent history from any crocodilian tissue. The different measured OCP residues were between 2.5 and 120 times higher than levels reported in literature, depending on the compound. These results are of ecotoxicological significance and have several management implications. In view of individuals being sampled from a conservation area it emphasizes the fact that pollutants know no boundaries and that premier conservation areas such as the world renowned KNP may be some of the most contaminated areas of the world.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ruan Gerber
- Water Research Group, Unit for Environmental Sciences and Management, North-West University, Private Bag X6001, Potchefstroom, 2520, South Africa.
| | - Hindrik Bouwman
- POPT Research Group, Unit for Environmental Sciences and Management, North-West University, Private Bag X6001, Potchefstroom, 2520, South Africa
| | - Danny Govender
- Veterinary Wildlife Services, South African National Parks, Private Bag X402, Skukuza, 1350, South Africa; Department of Paraclinical Sciences, University of Pretoria, Private Bag X04, Onderstepoort, 0110, South Africa
| | - Mayumi Ishizuka
- Laboratory of Toxicology, Department of Environmental Veterinary Sciences, Graduate School of Veterinary Medicine, Hokkaido University, Kita 18, Nishi 9, Kita-ku, Sapporo, 060-0818, Japan
| | - Yoshinori Ikenaka
- Water Research Group, Unit for Environmental Sciences and Management, North-West University, Private Bag X6001, Potchefstroom, 2520, South Africa; Laboratory of Toxicology, Department of Environmental Veterinary Sciences, Graduate School of Veterinary Medicine, Hokkaido University, Kita 18, Nishi 9, Kita-ku, Sapporo, 060-0818, Japan
| | - Yared B Yohannes
- Laboratory of Toxicology, Department of Environmental Veterinary Sciences, Graduate School of Veterinary Medicine, Hokkaido University, Kita 18, Nishi 9, Kita-ku, Sapporo, 060-0818, Japan; Department of Chemistry, College of Natural and Computational Sciences, University of Gondar, P.O.Box 196, Gondar, Ethiopia
| | - Nico J Smit
- Water Research Group, Unit for Environmental Sciences and Management, North-West University, Private Bag X6001, Potchefstroom, 2520, South Africa
| | - Victor Wepener
- Water Research Group, Unit for Environmental Sciences and Management, North-West University, Private Bag X6001, Potchefstroom, 2520, South Africa; Laboratory of Toxicology, Department of Environmental Veterinary Sciences, Graduate School of Veterinary Medicine, Hokkaido University, Kita 18, Nishi 9, Kita-ku, Sapporo, 060-0818, Japan
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Quintela FM, Pino SR, Silva FC, Loebmann D, Costa PG, Bianchini A, Martins SE. Arsenic, lead and cadmium concentrations in caudal crests of the yacare caiman (Caiman yacare) from Brazilian Pantanal. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2020; 707:135479. [PMID: 31761358 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.135479] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/26/2019] [Revised: 09/28/2019] [Accepted: 11/09/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Wetlands are environments of extreme importance due to their high biodiversity and invaluable ecosystem services. Nevertheless, wetlands worldwide are under the increasing threat of the effects of contaminants, which put at risk the biota and the ecosystems. Herein the concentrations of non-essential and toxic elements arsenic (As), lead (Pb) and cadmium (Cd) in caudal crests of the yacare caiman (Caiman yacare) from the Brazilian Pantanal, one of the largest wetlands in the world, were investigated aiming to compare concentrations in individuals from a large pristine area (Southern Pantanal) to animals from an area close to potential sources of anthropogenic emissions (Northern Pantanal). Levels above the limit of detection were found for all the elements in the majority of the analysed samples. The highest mean concentration was detected for As in samples from both sites, followed by Pb and Cd in samples from Southern Pantanal, and Cd and Pb in samples from Northern Pantanal. Significant negative correlations were found between As and Cd concentrations and the size of the individuals from the Southern Pantanal. Surprisingly, concentrations of all three elements were higher in pristine Southern Pantanal, but with significant differences only for Cd. This result suggests that natural sources and processes may be acting for the mobilisation and availability of As, Pb and Cd for Southern Pantanal biota, which reflected in the contamination of C. yacare. Data from the literature showed higher levels of As, Pb and Cd in abiotic compartments in Southern Pantanal and adjacent plateaus in comparison to Northern Pantanal, corroborating the higher concentrations detected in biotic samples from the south. Thus, natural sources seem to play a relevant role in the contamination of biota by As, Pb and Cd in Southern Pantanal, characterising an intriguing pattern that could be tested for other species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fernando Marques Quintela
- Laboratório de Vertebrados, Instituto de Ciências Biológicas (ICB), Universidade Federal do Rio Grande - FURG, 96203-900 Rio Grande, RS, Brazil; Programa de Pós-Graduação em Biologia de Ambientes Aquáticos Continentais, Instituto de Ciências Biológicas (ICB), Universidade Federal do Rio Grande - FURG, 96203-900 Rio Grande, RS, Brazil
| | - Saulo Rodrigues Pino
- Laboratório de Vertebrados, Instituto de Ciências Biológicas (ICB), Universidade Federal do Rio Grande - FURG, 96203-900 Rio Grande, RS, Brazil; Laboratório de Toxicologia, Instituto de Ciências Biológicas (ICB), Universidade Federal do Rio Grande - FURG, 96203-900 Rio Grande, RS, Brazil
| | - Felipe Caseiro Silva
- Programa de Pós-Graduação em Biologia de Ambientes Aquáticos Continentais, Instituto de Ciências Biológicas (ICB), Universidade Federal do Rio Grande - FURG, 96203-900 Rio Grande, RS, Brazil
| | - Daniel Loebmann
- Laboratório de Vertebrados, Instituto de Ciências Biológicas (ICB), Universidade Federal do Rio Grande - FURG, 96203-900 Rio Grande, RS, Brazil; Programa de Pós-Graduação em Biologia de Ambientes Aquáticos Continentais, Instituto de Ciências Biológicas (ICB), Universidade Federal do Rio Grande - FURG, 96203-900 Rio Grande, RS, Brazil
| | - Patrícia Gomes Costa
- Laboratório de Determinações II, Instituto de Ciências Biológicas (ICB), Universidade Federal do Rio Grande - FURG, 96203-900 Rio Grande, RS, Brazil
| | - Adalto Bianchini
- Laboratório de Determinações II, Instituto de Ciências Biológicas (ICB), Universidade Federal do Rio Grande - FURG, 96203-900 Rio Grande, RS, Brazil; Programa de Pós-Graduação em Ciências Fisiológicas, Instituto de Ciências Biológicas (ICB), Universidade Federal do Rio Grande - FURG, 96203-900 Rio Grande, RS, Brazil
| | - Samantha Eslava Martins
- Laboratório de Toxicologia, Instituto de Ciências Biológicas (ICB), Universidade Federal do Rio Grande - FURG, 96203-900 Rio Grande, RS, Brazil; Programa de Pós-Graduação em Biologia de Ambientes Aquáticos Continentais, Instituto de Ciências Biológicas (ICB), Universidade Federal do Rio Grande - FURG, 96203-900 Rio Grande, RS, Brazil.
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Bornman MS, Aneck-Hahn NH, de Jager C, Wagenaar GM, Bouwman H, Barnhoorn IEJ, Patrick SM, Vandenberg LN, Kortenkamp A, Blumberg B, Kimmins S, Jegou B, Auger J, DiGangi J, Heindel JJ. Endocrine Disruptors and Health Effects in Africa: A Call for Action. ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH PERSPECTIVES 2017; 125:085005. [PMID: 28935616 PMCID: PMC5783641 DOI: 10.1289/ehp1774] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/16/2017] [Revised: 05/22/2017] [Accepted: 05/24/2017] [Indexed: 06/01/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Africa faces a number of unique environmental challenges. Unfortunately, it lacks the infrastructure needed to support the comprehensive environmental studies that could provide the scientific basis to inform environmental policies. There are a number of known sources of endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs) and other hazardous chemicals in Africa. However, a coordinated approach to identify and monitor these contaminants and to develop strategies for public health interventions has not yet been made. OBJECTIVES This commentary summarizes the scientific evidence presented by experts at the First African Endocrine Disruptors meeting. We describe a "call to action" to utilize the available scientific knowledge to address the impact of EDCs on human and wildlife health in Africa. DISCUSSION We identify existing knowledge gaps about exposures to EDCs in Africa and describe how well-designed research strategies are needed to address these gaps. A lack of resources for research and a lag in policy implementation slows down intervention strategies and poses a challenge to advancing future health in Africa. CONCLUSION To address the many challenges posed by EDCs, we argue that Africans should take the lead in prioritization and evaluation of environmental hazards, including EDCs. We recommend the institution of education and training programs for chemical users, adoption of the precautionary principle, establishment of biomonitoring programs, and funding of community-based epidemiology and wildlife research programs led and funded by African institutes and private companies. https://doi.org/10.1289/EHP1774.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria S Bornman
- Environmental and Occupational Health, School of Health Systems and Public Health, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa
- Environmental Chemical Pollution and Health Research Unit, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa
| | - Natalie H Aneck-Hahn
- Environmental and Occupational Health, School of Health Systems and Public Health, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa
- Environmental Chemical Pollution and Health Research Unit, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa
- Department of Urology, University of Pretoria , Pretoria, South Africa
| | - Christiaan de Jager
- Environmental and Occupational Health, School of Health Systems and Public Health, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa
- Environmental Chemical Pollution and Health Research Unit, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa
| | - Gesina M Wagenaar
- Department of Zoology, University of Johannesburg , Johannesburg, South Africa
| | - Hindrik Bouwman
- Unit for Environmental Sciences and Management, North-West University , Potchefstroom, South Africa
| | | | - Sean M Patrick
- Environmental and Occupational Health, School of Health Systems and Public Health, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa
- Environmental Chemical Pollution and Health Research Unit, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa
| | - Laura N Vandenberg
- Department of Environmental Health Sciences, University of Massachusetts Amherst School of Public Health and Health Sciences , Amherst, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Andreas Kortenkamp
- Institute of Environment, Health and Societies, Brunel University London , Uxbridge, UK
| | - Bruce Blumberg
- Department of Developmental and Cell Biology, University of California, Irvine , Irvine, California, USA
| | - Sarah Kimmins
- Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, Faculty of Medicine, McGill University , Montreal, Canada
- Department of Animal Science, Faculty of Agricultural and Environmental Sciences, McGill University , Montreal, Canada
| | - Bernard Jegou
- Institut de Recherche en Santé, Environnement et Travail (IRSET-INSERM UMR 1085 ), Institut national de la santé et de la recherche médicale (INSERM) , Rennes, France
- Ecole des Hautes Études en Santé Publique (EHESP) , Rennes, France
| | - Jacques Auger
- INSERM U1016, Equipe Génomique, Epigénétique et Physiologie de la Reproduction, Institut Cochin, Université Paris Descartes , Paris, France
| | - Joseph DiGangi
- International POPs Elimination Network (IPEN) , Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Jerrold J Heindel
- Division of Extramural Research and Training, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, National Institutes of Health, Department of Health and Human Services , Research Triangle Park, North Carolina, USA
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