Citrulline concentration in routinely collected neonatal dried blood spots cannot be used to predict necrotising enterocolitis

Dried blood spots-based metabolomic analysis in preterm infants with necrotizing enterocolitis

OBJECTIVE

Necrotizing enterocolitis (NEC) is the leading cause of death among premature infants, and there is a lack of specific early diagnostic markers. Blood sampling is expected to better reflect pathophysiological and metabolic changes in systematic illness, but there is a risk of iatrogenic anemia, especially in premature infants. Dried blood spots technique seems to have important advantages compared to whole blood sampling as it requires only 12-15 μL as sample volume. This study aimed to investigate the special metabolomics of preterm neonates at high risk of NEC using dried blood spots.

METHODS

Cases and controls were strictly matched 1:1. Dried blood spots (n = 32, 16 cases-16 controls) from newborn screening were subjected to LC-MS/MS. Metabolomic data were analyzed by orthogonal partial least squares-discriminant analysis (OPLS-DA) and univariate/multivariate statistical analysis.

RESULTS

Compared to the control group, the NEC group had a significant reduction in seven amino acids (glycine, alanine, threonine, proline, ornithine, lysine, and asparagine).

CONCLUSIONS

The metabolic profile of neonates with NEC differs significantly from that of controls, making possible their separation with the use of targeted (LC-MS/MS) dried blood spots-based metabolomic analysis. Seven specific markers were identified for early detection and intervention.

Plasma Citrulline as a Biomarker for Early Diagnosis of Necrotizing Enterocolitis in Preterm Infants

OBJECTIVE

Citrulline synthesized by healthy enterocytes and decreases with injury. This work aimed to study plasma citrulline concentrations (CITs) as a biomarker to differentiate among infants presenting with early nonspecific signs and symptoms of necrotizing enterocolitis (NEC) with those who will develop NEC. Further to study the correlation between posttreatment CIT with time to full feeds (TTFF) and length of stay (LOS).

STUDY DESIGN

This is a prospective study which included infants < 32 weeks gestational age (GA) with 9 infants each in Group 1 (stage 2/3 NEC), Group 2 (with stage 1 NEC-like presentation), and Group 3 (healthy GA-matched infants). CIT was measured in Groups 1 and 2 within 24 hours of presentation and again in Group 1 after treatment.

RESULTS

The three groups were similar in clinical characteristics. Median CIT (µmol/L) in Group 1 (15.4 [interquartile range, IQR: 7.3-18.0]) was lower than Group 2 (22.2 [IQR: 18.3-27.3], p = 0.02) and Group 3 (24.9 [IQR: 19.8-31.9], p = 0.009). Posttreatment CIT in Group 1 did not correlate with TTFF (r = 0.15; p = 0.69) and LOS (r =  - 0.33; p = 0.38).

CONCLUSION

CIT was lower in infants with NEC as compared with healthy controls and those infants with nonspecific signs of NEC. CIT after treatment does not correlate with TTFF and LOS.

KEY POINTS

· Citrulline is produced by enterocytes.. · It is decreased in infants with necrotizing enterocolitis early in disease.. · It can be used as a biomarker for early diagnosis of necrotizing enterocolitis..

Plasma citrulline during the first 48 h after onset of necrotizing enterocolitis in preterm infants

BACKGROUND

Levels of plasma citrulline (citrulline-P), a biomarker for enterocyte function, might be useful for the monitoring the course of necrotizing enterocolitis (NEC). Our aim was to evaluate whether citrulline-P levels during the first 48 h (h) after NEC onset were associated with need for surgery, survival, and intestinal recovery.

METHODS

In preterm infants with NEC (Bell's stage ≥2) we measured citrulline-P levels during the first 48 h after NEC onset. Categorizing the measurements into 0-8 h, 8-16 h, 16-24 h, 24-36 h, and 36-48 h, we determined the course of citrulline-P using linear regression analyses. Next, we analyzed whether citrulline-P levels measured at 0-24 h and 24-48 h differed between conservative and surgical treatment, survivors and nonsurvivors, and equal/below and above total group's median time to full enteral feeding (FEFt).

RESULTS

We included 48 infants, median gestational age 28.3 [IQR:26.0-31.4] weeks, birth weight 1200 [IQR:905-1524] grams. Citrulline-P levels decreased the first 48 h (B per time interval: -1.40 μmol, 95% CI, -2.73 to -0.07, p = 0.04). Citrulline-P was not associated with treatment, nor with survival. Citrulline-P at 0-24 h, but not 24-48 h, was higher in infants with FEFt ≤20 days than in infants with FEFt >20 days (20.7 [IQR:19.9-25.3] µmol/L (n = 13) vs. 11.1 [IQR:8.4-24.0] µmol/L (n = 11), p = 0.049), with a citrulline-P cut-off value of 12.3 μmol/L.

CONCLUSION

Citrulline-P levels decreased the first 48 h after NEC onset, suggesting on-going intestinal injury. In survivors, measuring citrulline-P in the first 24 h after NEC onset may provide an indication for intestinal recovery rate.

Use of serum citrulline concentrations from routine newborn screen as a biomarker for necrotizing enterocolitis

PURPOSE

Necrotizing enterocolitis (NEC), a leading cause of mortality and morbidity in preterm neonates, lacks a reliable biomarker. Citrulline is primarily produced by enterocytes and correlates with intestinal function. Serum citrulline concentration (CIT) is routinely measured in routine newborn screening (NBS). The purpose of the study is to test if CIT from NBS may predict the occurrence of NEC and whether it correlates with the time to full feeds (TTFF) and length of stay (LOS), serving as a biomarker of NEC and intestinal health.

METHODS

In a retrospective case control study conducted on neonates with gestational age of 26-32 weeks, we compared CIT levels between cases (neonates with NEC) and controls (next-born neonate). NBS was collected within first 24 h, at day 5 and when the neonates achieved full feeds and were compared using non-parametric tests.

RESULTS

There was no difference in CIT between the controls and cases on day 1 [11.42 (7.42-14.84 vs. 11.93 (6.85-18.8) µmol/L, p = 0.55], on day 5 [11.99 (7.99-16.55) vs. 13.70 (7.42-26.83) µmol/L, p = 0.05], or at full feeds [14.86 (6.85-25.69) vs. 15.7 (7.42-26.26) µmol/L, p = 0.87]. CIT on day 1 did not correlate with TTFF (r = 0.08, p = 0.53) or LOS (r = 0.23, p = 0.06), respectively).

CONCLUSIONS

CIT from routine NBS does not serve as a biomarker to predict NEC in preterm neonates.

New Nutritional and Therapeutical Strategies of NEC

Necrotizing enterocolitis (NEC) is an acquired severe disease of the digestive system affecting mostly premature babies, possibly fatal and frequently associated to systemic complications. Because of the severity of this condition and the possible long-term consequences on the child's development, many studies have aimed at preventing the occurrence of the primary events at the level of the bowel wall (ischemia and necrosis followed by sepsis) by modifying or manipulating the diet (breast milk versus formula) and/or the feeding pattern (time for initiation after birth, continuous versus bolus feeding, modulation of intake according clinical events). Feeding have been investigated so far in order to prevent NEC. However, currently well-established and shared clinical nutritional practices are not available in preventing NEC. Nutritional and surgical treatments of NEC are instead well defined. In selected cases surgery is a therapeutic option of NEC, requiring sometimes partial intestinal resection responsible for short bowel syndrome. In this paper we will investigate the available options for treating NEC according to the Walsh and Kliegman classification, focusing on feeding practices in managing short bowel syndrome that can complicate NEC. We will also analyze the proposed ways of preventing NEC.

The Role of Immunonutrients in the Prevention of Necrotizing Enterocolitis in Preterm Very Low Birth Weight Infants

Necrotizing enterocolitis (NEC) is a critical intestinal emergency condition, which mainly occurs in preterm very low birth weight (PVLBW) infants. Despite remarkable advances in the care of PVLBW infants, with considerable improvement of the survival rate in recent decades, the incidence of NEC and NEC-related mortality have not declined accordingly. The fast progression from nonspecific signs to extensive necrosis also makes primary prevention the first priority. Recently, increasing evidence has indicated the important role of several nutrients in primary prevention of NEC. Therefore, the aim of this review is to summarize some potential immunomodulatory nutrients in the prevention of NEC, including bovine colostrum, probiotics, prebiotics (e.g., human milk oligosaccharides), long chain polyunsaturated fatty acids, and amino acids (glutamine, cysteine and N-acetylcysteine, l-arginine and l-citrulline). Based on current research evidence, probiotics are the most documented effective method to prevent NEC, while others still require further investigation in animal studies and clinical randomized controlled trials.