Bumetanide blocks the acquisition of conditioned fear in adult rats

Loop diuretics mitigate juvenile immobilization treatment-induced hippocampal dysfunction

Juvenile traumatic experiences can lead to adult cognitive impairments, including learning deficits and increased anxiety risk. Dysfunction of the hippocampus is crucial in stress-induced behavioral disorders, and recent evidence suggests that disrupted chloride homeostasis through the chloride transporter NKCC1 may alter GABAergic signaling and contribute to neuropathology. This study investigates the role of NKCC1 in long-term hippocampal dysfunction induced by juvenile immobilization (J_IMO). Male C57BL/6 mice underwent J_IMO treatment at five weeks of age and were assessed at six and twelve weeks using inhibitory avoidance (IA), open field tests (OFT), extracellular recording, qPCR, and Western blot analyses. Following J_IMO treatment, mice exhibited significant learning deficits in IA, with no notable differences in total movement distance in the OFT. Electrophysiological analysis revealed a marked increase in long-term potentiation (LTP) within the hippocampal Schaffer collateral pathway, while paired-pulse facilitation remained unchanged. An altered input-output curve indicated post-synaptic dysregulation in J_IMO-treated mice. Additionally, Western blot and qPCR analyses showed significant upregulation of Slc12a2 (NKCC1) expression, primarily localized to neural cells, as confirmed by double-staining immunohistochemistry. These findings suggest that NKCC1 plays a pivotal role in J_IMO-induced hippocampal dysfunction, particularly by impairing GABAergic inhibitory neurotransmission. The GABAA agonist isoguvacine's inhibitory effect on the fEPSP was diminished in J_IMO-treated mice but restored with NKCC1 inhibitor co-treatment, indicating that altered NKCC1 function undermines GABAergic inhibitory neurotransmission in this stress model. In conclusion, our results indicate that NKCC1 contributes to J_IMO-induced hippocampal dysfunction by diminishing GABAergic inhibitory neurotransmission. NKCC1 inhibitors may significantly alleviate these dysfunctions.

A midbrain-reticulotegmental circuit underlies exaggerated startle under fear emotions

Exaggerated startle has been recognized as a core hyperarousal symptom of multiple fear-related anxiety disorders, such as post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and panic disorder. However, the mechanisms driving this symptom are poorly understood. Here we reveal a neural projection from dorsal raphe nucleus (DRN) to a startle-controlling center reticulotegmental nucleus (RtTg) that mediates enhanced startle response under fear condition. Within RtTg, we identify an inhibitory microcircuit comprising GABAergic neurons in pericentral RtTg (RtTgP) and glutamatergic neurons in central RtTg (RtTgC). Inhibition of this RtTgP-RtTgC microcircuit leads to elevated startle amplitudes. Furthermore, we demonstrate that the conditioned fear-activated DRN 5-HTergic neurons send inhibitory projections to RtTgP GABAergic neurons, which in turn upregulate neuronal activities of RtTgC glutamatergic neurons. Chemogenetic activation of the DRN-RtTgP projections mimics the increased startle response under fear emotions. Moreover, conditional deletion of 5-HT_1B receptor from RtTgP GABAergic neurons largely reverses the exaggeration of startle during conditioned fear. Thus, our study establishes the disinhibitory DRN-RtTgP-RtTgC circuit as a critical mechanism underlying exaggerated startle under fear emotions, and provides 5-HT_1B receptor as a potential therapeutic target for treating hyperarousal symptom in fear-associated psychiatric disorders.

CNS pharmacology of NKCC1 inhibitors

The Na-K-2Cl cotransporter NKCC1 and the neuron-specific K-Cl cotransporter KCC2 are considered attractive CNS drug targets because altered neuronal chloride regulation and consequent effects on GABAergic signaling have been implicated in numerous CNS disorders. While KCC2 modulators are not yet clinically available, the loop diuretic bumetanide has been used off-label in attempts to treat brain disorders and as a tool for NKCC1 inhibition in preclinical models. Bumetanide is known to have anticonvulsant and neuroprotective effects under some pathophysiological conditions. However, as shown in several species from neonates to adults (mice, rats, dogs, and by extrapolation in humans), at the low clinical doses of bumetanide approved for diuresis, this drug has negligible access into the CNS, reaching levels that are much lower than what is needed to inhibit NKCC1 in cells within the brain parenchyma. Several drug discovery strategies have been initiated over the last ∼15 years to develop brain-permeant compounds that, ideally, should be selective for NKCC1 to eliminate the diuresis mediated by inhibition of renal NKCC2. The strategies employed to improve the pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic properties of NKCC1 blockers include evaluation of other clinically approved loop diuretics; development of lipophilic prodrugs of bumetanide; development of side-chain derivatives of bumetanide; and unbiased high-throughput screening approaches of drug discovery based on large chemical compound libraries. The main outcomes are that (1), non-acidic loop diuretics such as azosemide and torasemide may have advantages as NKCC1 inhibitors vs. bumetanide; (2), bumetanide prodrugs lead to significantly higher brain levels than the parent drug and have lower diuretic activity; (3), the novel bumetanide side-chain derivatives do not exhibit any functionally relevant improvement of CNS accessibility or NKCC1 selectivity vs. bumetanide; (4) novel compounds discovered by high-throughput screening may resolve some of the inherent problems of bumetanide, but as yet this has not been achieved. Thus, further research is needed to optimize the design of brain-permeant NKCC1 inhibitors. In parallel, a major challenge is to identify the mechanisms whereby various NKCC1-expressing cellular targets of these drugs within (e.g., neurons, oligodendrocytes or astrocytes) and outside the brain parenchyma (e.g., the blood-brain barrier, the choroid plexus, and the endocrine system), as well as molecular off-target effects, might contribute to their reported therapeutic and adverse effects.

Inhibitory Plasticity of Mesocorticolimbic Circuits in Addiction and Mental Illness

Behavioral adaptations occur through remodeling of brain circuits, as arising, for instance, from experience-dependent synaptic plasticity. Drugs of abuse and aversive stimuli, such as stress, act on the mesocorticolimbic system, dysregulating adaptive mechanisms and leading to a variety of aberrant behaviors associated with neuropsychiatric disorders. Until recently, research in the field has commonly focused on experience-dependent synaptic plasticity at excitatory synapses. However, there is growing evidence that synaptic plasticity within inhibitory circuits is an important contributor to maladaptive behaviors. We speculate that restoring normal inhibitory synaptic transmission is a promising therapeutic target for correcting some of the circuit abnormalities underlying neuropsychiatric disorders.

Bumetanide blocks the acquisition of conditioned fear in adult rats

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE

Bumetanide has anxiolytic effects in rat models of conditioned fear. As a loop diuretic, bumetanide blocks cation-chloride co-transport and this property may allow bumetanide to act as an anxiolytic by modulating GABAergic synaptic transmission in the CNS. Its potential for the treatment of anxiety disorders deserves further investigation. In this study, we evaluated the possible involvement of the basolateral nucleus of the amygdala in the anxiolytic effect of bumetanide.

EXPERIMENTAL APPROACH

Brain slices were prepared from Wistar rats. extracellular recording, stereotaxic surgery, fear-potentiated startle response, locomotor activity monitoring and Western blotting were applied in this study.

KEY RESULTS

Systemic administration of bumetanide (15.2 mg·kg-1 , i.v.), 30 min prior to fear conditioning, significantly inhibited the acquisition of the fear-potentiated startle response. Phosphorylation of ERK in the basolateral nucleus of amygdala was reduced after bumetanide administration. In addition, suprafusion of bumetanide (5 or 10 μM) attenuated long-term potentiation in the amygdala in a dose-dependent manner. Intra-amygdala infusion of bumetanide, 15 min prior to fear conditioning, also blocked the acquisition of the fear-potentiated startle response. Finally, the possible off-target effect of bumetanide on conditioned fear was excluded by side-by-side control experiments.

CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS

These results suggest the basolateral nucleus of amygdala plays a critical role in the anxiolytic effects of bumetanide.