The influence of mothers' and fathers' sensitivity in the first year of life on children's cognitive outcomes at 18 and 36 months

Neural correlates of inhibitory control in the context of infant cry and paternal postpartum mental health

BACKGROUND

Inhibitory control, a form of self-regulation, may support sensitive parenting, but has been understudied in new fathers despite their pronounced risk for stress and mental health challenges.

METHODS

This study probed the neural correlates of inhibitory control and its associations to first-time fathers' postpartum mental health, focusing on depressive symptoms, state anxiety, and perceived stress. Six months after their child's birth, 38 fathers self-reported on their mood, anxiety, and stress, and performed a Go/No-Go fMRI task while listening to three sets of sounds (infant cry, pink noise, and silence).

RESULTS

Fathers' behavioral inhibition accuracy was consistent across the sound conditions, but their patterns of neural activation varied. Compared to the pink noise condition, fathers showed heightened engagement in prefrontal regulatory regions when self-regulating during the infant cry and silent conditions. When examining correct trials only, results in visual motor area and primary somatosensory cortex emerged only for infant cry and not for pink noise and silence. Moreover, fathers reporting higher levels of postpartum depression, state anxiety, and perceived stress showed greater activation in prefrontal regions when inhibiting during infant cry or silence.

CONCLUSION

This study is the first to underscore the complex interplay between the neural mechanisms related to inhibitory control and postpartum mental health and stress across varied auditory context, laying the groundwork for future research.

Maternal sensitivity and child internalizing and externalizing behavior: a mediating role for glucocorticoid receptor gene (NR3C1) methylation?

The early caregiving environment can have lasting effects on child mental health. Animal models suggest that glucocorticoid receptor gene (NR3C1) DNA methylation plays a mediating role in linking more responsive caregiving to improved behavioral outcomes by its impact on the stress regulatory system. In this longitudinal study, we examined whether children's NR3C1 methylation levels mediate an effect of maternal sensitivity in infancy on levels of child internalizing and externalizing behavior in a community sample. Maternal sensitivity of 145 mothers was rated at infant age 5 weeks, 12 months, and 30 months by observing mother-infant interactions. Buccal DNA methylation was assessed in the same children at age 6 years and maternal-reported internalizing and externalizing behavior was assessed at age 6 and 10 years. Higher sensitivity at age 5 weeks significantly predicted lower DNA methylation levels at two NR3C1 CpG loci, although methylation levels at these loci did not mediate an effect of maternal sensitivity on levels of child internalizing and externalizing behavior. Overall, the study provides evidence that maternal sensitivity in early infancy is associated with DNA methylation levels at loci involved in stress regulation, but the significance of this finding for child mental health remains unclear.

Mentalizing in first-time fathers: reflective functioning as a mediator between attachment representation and sensitivity

Sensitivity in parent-child interaction is essential for child development. Since fathers are increasingly involved in childrearing, identifying factors leading to paternal sensitivity is crucial. We examined the relation between attachment representation and reflective functioning (RF) as factors influencing paternal sensitivity in a longitudinal study including N = 40 first-time fathers (Mage = 33) and their 6-month-old children. We used the Adult Attachment Interview during pregnancy to assess paternal attachment representation and general RF, the Parental Development Interview to assess fathers' parental RF, and the Emotional Availability Scale to measure sensitivity at child's age of 6 month. Data show that secure paternal attachment representation, high general and parental RF are associated with higher levels of paternal sensitivity. Further, parental RF mediates the association between attachment representation and paternal sensitivity. These findings contribute to the identification of a causal interplay in that they suggest an explanatory effect of RF on the association between fathers' attachment representation, and sensitivity.

Failure to thrive in toddlers with lack of interest in eating and food and their cognitive development during later childhood

Background

Experiencing Failure to Thrive or malnutrition in early years has been associated with children later displaying low Intelligence Quotient (IQ). The current study's aim was to examine whether Failure to Thrive in Toddlers with Lack of Interest in Eating and Food, a subtype of Avoidant/Restrictive Food Intake Disorder as defined by DSM-5, which has also previously been identified as Infantile Anorexia (IA), was associated with poor cognitive development outcomes during later childhood.

Methods

The IQs and growth parameter of 30 children (53% female) previously diagnosed and treated for IA at 12 to 42 months of age, were reevaluated at a mean age of 10.0 years (SD = 2.1 years) and compared to 30 matched control children. Children's growth was assessed using Z-scores and their cognitive development was measured using the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-4th Edition.

Results

None of the growth parameters were significantly related to IQ. Further, IQ scores of children previously diagnosed with IA and control children were not significantly different. However, the education level of children's fathers had a significantly positive effect on IQ.

Conclusions

Our study highlights the disjunction between growth parameters and IQ within our sample. Overall, our findings suggest that the primary target of intervention for these children should be the parent-child conflict around the feeding relationship, rather than a focus on the child's weight itself. Finally, our results confirm the relevance to include fathers in the intervention of these children.

[Fathers' Experiences of Pregnancy, Birth and Postpartum During the Covid 19 Pandemic]

INTRODUCTION

In order to reduce the possible risk of infection by SARS-CoV-2, access restrictions have been introduced in all areas of public life. In extra- and intramural health care facilities, these measures also affect pregnant women, women giving birth, and women who have recently given birth as well as their partners. The aim of this study is to collect and reflect on the experiences of expectant fathers against the background of pandemic-related restrictions.

METHOD

Following a qualitative study design, 11 guided interviews with fathers who experienced a birth during the Covid 19 pandemic were conducted in June 2022. Based on a content analysis according to Mayring, categories were derived, and the results from the interviews were transferred to a higher level of abstraction and interpreted.

RESULTS

The fathers felt excluded, stressed and insecure due to the pandemic-related restrictions during pregnancy, birth, and the women's inpatient stay. Although there was understanding for the measures, there was a prevailing fear of not being able to support the partner sufficiently and of not having enough opportunities for bonding with the newborn.

CONCLUSION

The results of the study make it clear that during the covid pandemic, the need for structured frameworks for the involvement of accompanying persons in the obstetric setting should receive increased attention. The active participation of partners in antenatal and birth care should be encouraged.

Does parental autonomy support mediate the relation between parent and infant executive function? A study of mothers and fathers in the Netherlands and China

Parenting skills, such as Autonomy Support (AS), have been proposed as a potential mechanism explaining the intergenerational contiguity of Executive Function (EF). However, few studies have focused on mothers and fathers among non-Western families. The current study investigated the role of maternal and paternal AS in the relation between parental EF and infant EF at 14 months of age among 123 Dutch and 63 Chinese first-time mothers and fathers and their infants. Multiple-group structural equation models were built for mothers and fathers separately with country as a grouping variable. Results showed that parental AS did not mediate the relation between parent EF and infant EF at 14 months. Mean-level differences were found in parental AS, maternal EF, and infant inhibition across countries, while no country differences were found in the relation between parent EF, AS and infant EF. Our findings suggested that individual differences in early EF may not be stable enough to be reliably predicted from parental factors across the Netherlands and China.

Warmth and reciprocity with mothers, and young children's resilience to exposure to community violence in Colombia: findings from the La Sabana Parent-Child Study

BACKGROUND

Exposure to community violence is common worldwide and is associated with emotional and behavioural problems in children. Little is known about sources of resilience. Building on our previous work on the contribution of callous-unemotional (CU) traits to child aggression in Colombia, we examined whether positive parenting is protective for children whose families are exposed to community violence.

METHODS

Families were recruited from three demographically contrasting regions of Colombia. The sample comprised 235 children aged 3.5 years and their mothers, of whom 220 (93%) were followed up at age 5.0 years. Positive parenting was assessed as the average of maternal warmth and reciprocity, and as praise, and negative parenting as the average of negative affect and conflict seen in video recordings of standardized procedures. CU traits and oppositional defiant disorder were assessed by maternal report at ages 3.5 and 5.0 years, and mothers reported exposure to community violence over the 18 months between assessments. A range of potential confounds was included in adjusted analyses.

RESULTS

In the families who were exposed to community violence, but not in the unexposed, maternal warmth and reciprocity were associated prospectively with lower CU traits (interaction, p = .007). In the exposed group maternal warmth and reciprocity explained 10% of the variance (β = -.34, p = .001). Maternal praise was not associated with CU traits. Maternal negative parenting predicted higher CU traits as the main effect but not in interaction with community violence exposure.

CONCLUSIONS

Maternal warmth and reciprocity with young children may promote resilience in the face of community violence. Programmes to enhance these protective processes may be needed especially where prospects for reducing community violence are limited. The centrality of parents for these children highlights the plight of those exposed to community violence, and also either separated from parents or orphaned.

Association between maternal reflective function and preschool children’s cognitive abilities

Children’s cognitive abilities (e.g., working memory) are associated with mental health, adaptive behaviors, and academic achievement, and may be enhanced by parental reflective function (i.e., capacity to reflect on mental states, feelings, thoughts, and intentions in one’s child and oneself). We evaluated associations between maternal reflective function and children’s cognitive abilities alone and while controlling for parent-child attachment and interaction quality, and psychosocial (i.e., maternal depressive symptoms, adverse childhood experiences) and sociodemographic (e.g., socioeconomic status) factors. Our sample, recruited in Canada, was primarily white and included 73 mothers and their 4–5 year old preschool children. Maternal reflective function was measured with the Reflective Functioning Scale applied to the Parent Development Interview and the Parental Reflective Functioning Questionnaire. Multiple regression analyses revealed that maternal reflective function was associated with children’s cognitive abilities. The Parent Development Interview rated child-reflective function was associated with children’s higher verbal comprehension alone and while adjusting for covariates (e.g., parent-child interaction quality, socioeconomic status), and the Parental Reflective Functioning Questionnaire Interest and Curiosity with higher verbal comprehension while adjusting for parent-child interactions and attachment pattern. The Parental Reflective Functioning Questionnaire Certainty in Mental States was associated with higher working memory scores for children while adjusting for covariates. Full Scale IQ and Visual Spatial Index were not significantly associated with maternal reflective function. Associations were found between secure and disorganized attachment with higher verbal comprehension and lower working memory, respectively. These findings highlight the importance of high maternal reflective function to cognitive abilities in early childhood.

The Role of Paternal Involvement on Behavioral Sensitive Responses and Neurobiological Activations in Fathers: A Systematic Review

As fathering research has flourished, a growing body of studies has focused on behavioral and neurobiological mechanisms, respectively associated with caregiving sensitivity and responsiveness to infant stimuli. However, the association between these aspects and the key concept of paternal involvement in childcare (i.e., contribution in infant care in terms of time, availability, and responsibility) has been poorly investigated. The current work aims to systematically review the role of involvement in childcare on both neural activations and sensitive behaviors in fathers by examining (a) how paternal involvement has been measured and (b) whether paternal involvement has been associated with neurobiological activation and behavioral sensitive responses. Inclusion criteria were peer-reviewed quantitative studies, concerning fathers responding to infant stimuli at neurobiological or behavioral level, and including a quantitative measurement of paternal involvement in childcare. A quality rating for each study has been performed based on the measurements adopted to assess paternal involvement. Of 2,529 articles, 27 studies were included. According to our quality rating, 10 out of 27 studies included fairly good-standard measures for measuring paternal involvement, whereas 17 studies used good-standard measures. In addition, 11 studies provided details of paternal involvement in the context of neurobiological responses to infant stimuli, whereas 16 addressed paternal sensitive behaviors. Overall, only 8 studies reported relevant findings about the relationship between paternal involvement and neurobiological responses or sensitive behaviors in fathers. The present study is the first systematically evaluating the scope of paternal involvement in the field of Paternal Brain and fathers' sensitive responsiveness research. When high-standard measures are used, paternal involvement seems to play a significant role in modulating both the hormonal and the neural pathways associated with paternal behaviors. Remarkably, the role of paternal engagement may underpin an adaptive nurturance that is not dependent on pregnancy and childbirth but on caregiving experience. A promising positive link between paternal involvement and behavioral sensitivity may be expected in further studies, which will need to corroborate our conclusion by adopting detailed and appropriate measures assessing paternal involvement. As a future line of research, the inclusion of gay fathers may be beneficial for the field.

From Early Micro-Temporal Interaction Patterns to Child Cortisol Levels: Toward the Role of Interactive Reparation and Infant Attachment in a Longitudinal Study

Parental mental disorders increase the risk for insecure attachment in children. However, the quality of caregiver–infant interaction plays a key role in the development of infant attachment. Dyadic interaction is frequently investigated via global scales which are too rough to uncover micro-temporal mechanisms. Prior research found that the latency to reparation of uncoordinated dyadic states is associated with infant behavioral and neuroendocrine regulation. We investigated the hypothesis that this interactive mechanism is critical in predicting secure vs. insecure attachment quality in infancy. We also assessed the predictive quality of infant attachment regarding neuroendocrine reactivity later in childhood. A subsample of N = 58 dyads (n = 22 mothers with anxiety disorders, n = 36 controls) from a larger study were analyzed. At 3–8 months postpartum, maternal anxiety disorders were diagnosed via a structured clinical interview as well as dyadic interaction during the Face-to-Face-Still-Face (FFSF) was observed and coded on a micro-temporal scale. Infant attachment quality was assessed with the strange situation paradigm at 12–24 months of age. In an overlapping subsample of N = 39 (n = 13 mothers with anxiety disorder; n = 26 controls), we assessed child cortisol reactivity at 5 to 6 years of age. Generalized linear modeling revealed that longer latencies to interactive reparation during the reunion episode of the FFSF as well as maternal diagnosis at 3–8 months of age predict insecure attachment in children aged 12–24 months. Cox regressions demonstrated that dyads with infants who developed insecure attachment at 12–24 months of age were 48% less likely to achieve an interactive reparation at 3–8 months of age. Mixed models revealed that compared to securely attached children, children who had developed an insecure attachment at 12–24 months of age had an increased cortisol reactivity at 5 to 6 years of age during free play. The results confirm the hypothesis that the development of attachment is affected by experienced micro-temporal interactive patterns besides diagnostic categories. They also showed that infants of mothers with postpartum anxiety disorders have a more than fivefold increased risk of developing an insecure attachment than the infants of the control group. Moreover, results imply that these patterns may influence neurohormonal regulation even in preschool aged children.

Does neural face processing explain effects of an attachment-based intervention on maternal sensitivity? A randomized controlled study including pre- and postintervention measures

BACKGROUND

Although there is a large body of literature highlighting the behavioral effects of parenting interventions, studies on the neurocognitive mechanisms involved in such intervention effects remain scarce.

PURPOSE

The aim of the current study was to test whether changes in neural face processing (as reflected in N170 amplitudes) would act as a mediator in the association between the Video-feedback Intervention to promote Positive Parenting and Sensitive Discipline (VIPP-SD) and maternal sensitivity.

METHODS

A total of 66 mothers of whom a random 33% received the VIPP-SD and the others a "dummy" intervention participated in pre- and postintervention assessments. We recorded mothers' electroencephalographic (EEG) activity in response to photographs of children's neutral, happy, and angry facial expressions. Maternal sensitivity was observed while mothers interacted with their offspring in a semi-structured play situation.

RESULTS

In contrast with our expectations, we did not find evidence for mediation of intervention effects on maternal sensitivity by the N170.

CONCLUSION

We discuss that parenting support programs may yield different effects on neurocognitive processes depending on the population and provide recommendations for future research. Our study underscores the importance of reporting null findings and preregistering studies in the field of neurocognitive research.

A Systematic Review of Father-Child Play Interactions and the Impacts on Child Development

Father-child play engagement has been linked to a variety of child developmental outcomes. However, the most prevalent types of play and child developmental outcomes utilised in research remains unclear. The aim of this study was to systematically review the literature on father-child play interactions and the association with child developmental outcomes for children aged 0-10 years. Database searches generated 1622 abstracts that matched the specified search criteria. Abstract screening and full-text review resulted in 39 included publications. The systematic review revealed that while some paternal play behaviours resulted in different impacts across play types, others reported similar impacts. The findings of this review have implications for potential interventions and parenting resources.

How do expectant fathers respond to infant cry? Examining brain and behavioral responses and the moderating role of testosterone

Expectant parents’ responses to infant cry may indicate future risk and resiliency in the parent-child relationship. Most studies of parental reactivity to infant cry have focused on mothers, and few studies have focused on expectant fathers, although fathers make important contributions to parenting. Additionally, although different responses to infant cry (behavioral, psychological and neural) are hypothesized to track together, few studies have analyzed them concurrently. The current investigation aimed to address these gaps by characterizing multimodal responses to infant cry within expectant fathers and testing whether prenatal testosterone moderates these responses. Expectant fathers responded to infant cry vs frequency-matched white noise with increased activation in bilateral areas of the temporal lobe involved in processing speech sounds and social and emotional stimuli. Handgrip force, which has been used to measure parents’ reactivity to cry sounds in previous studies, did not differentiate cry from white noise within this sample. Expectant fathers with higher prenatal testosterone showed greater activation in the supramarginal gyrus, left occipital lobe and precuneus cortex to cry sounds. Expectant fathers appear to interpret and process infant cry as a meaningful speech sound and social cue, and testosterone may play a role in expectant fathers’ response to infant cry.

Paternal Sensitivity and Children's Cognitive and Socioemotional Outcomes: A Meta-Analytic Review

In a series of meta-analyses, paternal sensitivity was associated with children's (age range: 7 months-9 years) overall cognitive functioning (N = 3,193; k = 23; r = .19), including language skills (k = 9; r = .21), cognitive ability (k = 9; r = .18), and executive function (k = 8; r = .19). Paternal sensitivity was not associated with children's overall socioemotional functioning (N = 2,924; k = 24; r = -.03) or internalizing problems, but it was associated with children's emotion regulation (k = 7; r = .22) and externalizing problems (k = 19; r = -.08). In the broad cognitive functioning, executive function, broad socioemotional functioning, and externalizing problems meta-analyses, child age was a significant moderator.

Sociodemographic and Psychosocial Predictors of VIP Attendance in Smart Beginnings Through 6 Months: Effectively Targeting At-Risk Mothers in Early Visits

Past research on predictors of participation in early childhood parenting programs suggest that families experiencing higher levels of sociodemographic adversity (e.g., younger maternal age, single parenthood, lower income or education) are less likely to participate in parenting programs. This is significant, as it may indicate that those most in need of additional support are the least likely to receive it. Data from a randomized control trial (RCT) of Smart Beginnings, an integrated, tiered model for school readiness, were used to explore predictors of attendance in Video Interaction Project (VIP) through 6 months. VIP is a primary preventive intervention delivered in tandem with pediatric well-child visits, aimed at reducing income-based disparities in early child development through promotion of responsive parent-child interactions. Using Poisson distribution models (N = 403; treatment arm, n = 201), we find that demographic, socioeconomic status (SES), and psychosocial variables are associated with program attendance but not always in the expected direction. While analyses show that first-time mothers have higher levels of program attendance as expected, we find that less-educated mothers and those with lower parenting self-efficacy have higher levels of attendance as well. The latter findings may imply that the VIP intervention is, by some indicators, effectively targeting families who are more challenging to engage and retain. Implications for pediatric-based interventions with population-level accessibility are discussed.

The Paternal Transition Entails Neuroanatomic Adaptations that are Associated with the Father's Brain Response to his Infant Cues

The transition into fatherhood is a life-changing event that requires substantial psychological adaptations. In families that include a father figure, sensitive paternal behavior has been shown to positively impact the infant’s development. Yet, studies exploring the neuroanatomic adaptations of men in their transition into fatherhood are scarce. The present study used surface-based methods to reanalyze a previously published prospective magnetic resonance imaging dataset comprised of 20 first-time fathers (preconception-to-postpartum) and 17 childless men. We tested if the transition into fatherhood entailed changes in cortical volume, thickness, and area and whether these changes were related to 2 indicators of paternal experience. Specifically, we tested if such changes were associated with (1) the baby’s age and/or (2) the fathers’ brain activity in response to pictures of their babies compared with an unknown baby. Results indicated that first-time fathers exhibited a significant reduction in cortical volume and thickness of the precuneus. Moreover, higher volume reduction and cortical thinning were associated with stronger brain responses to pictures of their own baby in parental brain regions. This is the first study showing preconception-to-postpartum neuroanatomical adaptations in first-time fathers associated with the father’s brain response to cues of his infant.

[Anxiety and Depression in Transition - Desiderata for Improved Care and Research: Results of the Joint Task Force Transition of DGPPN and DGKJP]

Anxiety and Depression in Transition - Desiderata for Improved Care and Research: Results of the Joint Task Force Transition of DGPPN and DGKJP Abstract. Affective disorders (e. g., anxiety, depression) frequently begin during adolescence. Yet therapeutic approaches during adolescence differ in some respects from those employed during adulthood. During the transition from adolescence to adulthood, there is a high risk of discontinuation of therapeutic treatment, which may consequently affect integration in employment. There is a need for age-specific therapeutic strategies that address the relevant issues of adolescents as well as the presently unmet needs in research and treatment for this specific population.

[The impact of adolecent motherhood on child development in preschool children- identification of maternal risk factors]

The impact of adolecent motherhood on child development in preschool children- identification of maternal risk factors Abstract. Objective: This longitudinal study aims to identify relevant risk factors in adolescent mothers which might impact their child's cognitive and speech development as well as behavior problems at preschool age. Based on earlier findings, maternal sensitivity (EA), socioeconomic status (SES) and psychological stress were identified as potentially influencing factors. Method: N = 31 adolescent and N = 47 adult mothers with their children aged 3;0 to 5;9 (M = 3;55) participated in this study. Child variables included cognitive development (WPPSI-III), language development (SSV), and behavioral problems (SDQ). Maternal factors were EA, SES, and mental health problems (BSI-18). Results: Children of adolescent mothers performed worse on cognitive and speech development and are described by their mothers as exhibiting more behavioral problems compared to children of adult mothers. Mediation analyses revealed that the effect of maternal age on children's cognitive development is occurs through reduced maternal sensitivity of adolescent mothers. Further, higher psychological stress of adolescent mothers mediated the effect of maternal age on children's behavior problems. Conclusion: Preschool children of adolescent mothers showed poorer developmental outcomes compared to children of adult mothers. This is partly explained by lower maternal sensitivity and higher rates of psychological stress among adolescent mothers.

Recruiting Immigrant and Refugee Arab American Mother-Father-Infant Triads Resettling in the United States: A Feasibility Study

BACKGROUND

Recent Iraqi and Syrian immigrant families are exposed to stress, anxiety, and depressive symptoms due to civil war. Recruitment challenges specific to conducting research within this population include the lack of knowledge about research, stigma of mental illness, and mistrust.

PURPOSES

Among immigrant Iraqi and Syrian families: (1) evaluate the approach to recruitment and retention; and (2) evaluate the acceptability of the study procedures.

METHODS

This feasibility study was conducted based on the work of Orsmond and Cohn. It is focused on the evaluation of recruitment capability and resulting sample characteristics and evaluation of acceptability and suitability of the study procedures. Mother-father-infant triads were recruited from a community center. Parents completed questionnaires about stress and depressive symptoms. Buccal swab samples were obtained from the triads to measure telomere length, and infant hair samples were obtained to measure cortisol level. Telomere length and hair cortisol were utilized as measures of chronic stress.

RESULTS

Ten mother-father-infant triads were enrolled out of 11 approached. Challenges faced this study included inability to reach families by telephone and the effect of cultural norms where the husband's permission was needed before proceeding, resulting in a slow pace of recruitment. The study strategy and procedures appeared to be feasible as all of the families who participated completed all study protocols.

CONCLUSION

This study provides feasibility data to inform the launching of a larger study to examine the associations of family stress with infant stress and development. These findings from Iraqi and Syrian families may be generalizable to studies seeking to recruit these and other immigrant and refugee population families.

Influence of Fathers' Early Parenting on the Development of Children Born Very Preterm and Full Term

OBJECTIVES

To examine factors associated with fathers' early parenting behaviors (including very preterm [VPT] birth, familial social risk, child sex, and child medical risk), and the relationship between fathers' early parenting behaviors and later child development.

STUDY DESIGN

Participants were 81 VPT (born <30 weeks of gestation) and 39 full-term father-child dyads. Parenting behaviors (sensitivity, structuring, nonintrusiveness, nonhostility) were assessed at 12 months of corrected age using the Emotional Availability Scales, with scores ranging from 1 (low) to 7 (high). At 24 months of corrected age, child cognitive, language, motor, and social-emotional development were assessed. Results are presented as (regression coefficients; 95% CIs).

RESULTS

There was little evidence that VPT birth, familial social risk, or child medical risk were associated with fathers' parenting behaviors. Fathers of girls tended to be more sensitive (0.42; 0.18, 0.65), less intrusive (0.36; 0.04, 0.70), and less hostile (0.26; 0.01, 0.50) compared with fathers of boys. Higher structuring was associated with more optimal cognitive (3.29; 1.25, 5.34), and language development (4.69; 2.26, 7.14). Higher sensitivity was associated with more optimal language development 3.35 (0.95, 5.75), and more intrusive behavior was associated with more externalizing symptoms (-1.68; -3.06, -0.31).

CONCLUSIONS

Early parenting did not differ between fathers with VPT and full-term children, but fathers' parenting did vary according to child sex. Fathers' early parenting was associated with future neurodevelopment, reinforcing the need to support fathers' parenting, and include fathers in early intervention programs.

Associations Among Mothers' Depression, Emotional and Learning-Material Support to Their Child, and Children's Cognitive Functioning: A 16-Year Longitudinal Study

This study examined the associations among maternal depression, mothers' emotional and material investment in their child, and children's cognitive functioning. Middle-class Chilean mothers and children (N = 875; 52% males) were studied when children were 1, 5, 10, and 16 years (1991-2007). Results indicated that highly depressed mothers provided less emotional and material support to their child across all ages, which related to children's lower IQ. Children with lower mental abilities at age 1 received less learning-material support at age 5, which led to mothers' higher depression at child age 10. Mothers' low support was more strongly linked to maternal depression as children got older. Findings elucidate the dynamic and enduring effects of depression on mothers' parenting and children's development.

Disentangling the Dyadic Dance: Theoretical, Methodological and Outcomes Systematic Review of Mother-Infant Dyadic Processes

Background: During the last decades, the research on mother-infant dyad has produced a great amount of data, methods and theories, which largely contributed to set a revolution in the way we look at developmental changes during infancy and childhood. Very different constructs depict the different aspects of the "dyadic dance" occurring between a mother and her infant; nonetheless, a comprehensive and consistent systematization of these concepts in a coherent theoretical landscape is still lacking. Aim: In the present work, we aim at disentangling the different theoretical and methodological definitions of 9 dyadic constructs and we highlight their effects on infants' and children developmental outcomes. Methods: A literature search has been conducted on three databases-PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science. Three different reviews are reported here: (1) a review on the theoretical definitions of dyadic constructs; (2) a review of operational definitions, settings and methods of dyadic processes; (3) a systematic review of dyadic processes' outcomes for infants' and children developmental trajectories. Results: Two constructs emerged as wide meta-theoretical concepts (reciprocity and mutuality) and seven described specific processes (attunement, contingency, coordination, matching, mirroring, reparation, synchrony). A global model resuming the relationships among different processes is reported, which highlights the emergence of two specific cycles of dyadic functioning (i.e., matching-mismatching-reparation-synchrony; contingency, coordination, attunement, mirroring). A comprehensive review of the adopted measures is also provided. Finally, all the processes provided significant contributions to infants' behavioral, cognitive, and socio-emotional development during the first 3 years of age, but limited research has been conducted on specific processes (e.g. reparation and mirroring). Conclusion: The present study provides an original research-grounded framework to consider the different nature of mother-infant dyadic processes within a unified dyadic eco-system. Different levels of evidence emerged for the role of diverse mother-infant dyadic processes on infants' and children development. Open questions and future research directions are highlighted.

Cognitive development in children of adolescent mothers: The impact of socioeconomic risk and maternal sensitivity

BACKGROUND

Adolescent motherhood is accompanied by a constellation of risk factors that translate into developmental risk for the off-spring. Socioeconomic risk that is associated with adolescent motherhood as well as maternal interactive behaviors may contribute to the impact of adolescent motherhood on children's developmental outcome.

OBJECTIVE

Therefore, the aim of the current study was to investigate differences in children's cognitive development between children of adolescent and adult mothers in their first two years of life and to examine whether socioeconomic risk (e.g. such as educational and financial problems) and/or maternal sensitivity mediate developmental differences between children of adolescent and adult mothers.

METHODS

Adolescent mothers (<21 years; N = 64) and adult mothers (>25 years; N = 34) and their infants were included in the current study. Child cognitive development and maternal sensitivity were assessed at three different time points (T1: mean child age 5.26 months; T2: mean child age 14.69 months; T3: mean child age 21.16 months).

RESULTS

Children of adult mothers showed better cognitive performance at T3 compared to children of adolescent mothers but not at T1 and T2. A multiple mediation model including socioeconomic risk and maternal sensitivity as serial mediators demonstrated that the effect of adolescent motherhood on cognitive development was mediated in a causal effect chain with socioeconomic risk negatively affecting maternal sensitivity and maternal sensitivity affecting children's cognitive development.

DISCUSSION

The present findings demonstrate that maternal interactive behaviors are not only a simple predictor of cognitive development but may also act as a mediator of the association between more distal variables such as socioeconomic risk and cognitive development in adolescent mothers. This supports the need to promote prevention and intervention programs for adolescent mothers during the early postpartum period to reduce socioeconomic problems and enhance maternal interactive behaviors.

Does maternal psychological distress affect neurodevelopmental outcomes of preterm infants at a gestational age of ≤32weeks

BACKGROUND

There is some evidence that maternal psychological status in the prenatal and postnatal periods is associated with infants' cognitive, behavioural, and emotional functions.

AIM

The aim of this study was to examine the relationships of maternal depression and anxiety with neurodevelopmental outcomes of preterm infants with a gestational age of ≤32weeks, examined at a corrected age of 18 to 22months.

STUDY DESIGN

Cross-sectional study.

SUBJECTS

In total, 220 preterm infants with a gestational age of ≤32weeks who were born from January 2008 to September 2011 and admitted to the neonatal intensive care unit were prospectively examined.

OUTCOME MEASURES

Neurodevelopmental evaluation was performed at a corrected age of 18 to 22months by a developmental paediatrician using the Bayley Scales of Infant Development II (BSID-II). The Beck Depression Inventory and Beck Anxiety Inventory were used to assess maternal depression and anxiety at the same visit as the neurodevelopmental evaluation.

RESULTS

The depression scores of mothers of infants with a Mental Development Index (MDI) score of <70 were significantly higher than those of mothers of infants with an MDI score of >70 (16.3±12.8 vs 8.8±7.0, p<0.001). The depression scores of mothers of infants with neurodevelopmental impairment were also significantly higher than those without neurodevelopmental impairment (12.8±10.5 vs 8.8±7.3, p=0.003). There was no relationship between the presence of cerebral palsy or a Psychomotor Developmental Index (PDI) score of <70 and the mothers' depression scores. Multiple regression analysis revealed that maternal depression and the occurrence of more than two sepsis attacks were associated with an MDI score of <70, and grade III to IV intraventricular haemorrhage was associated with neurodevelopmental impairment and a PDI score of <70.

CONCLUSION

Maternal depression is negatively associated with the neurodevelopment of preterm infants at a gestational age of ≤32weeks. Maternal psychological well-being should be taken into consideration during the long-term follow-up of preterm infants.

Paternal Stimulation and Early Child Development in Low- and Middle-Income Countries

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVE

Few studies have examined the relationship between paternal stimulation and children's growth and development, particularly in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs). This study aimed to estimate the prevalence of paternal stimulation and to assess whether paternal stimulation was associated with early child growth and development.

METHODS

Data from the Multiple Indicator Cluster Surveys rounds 4 and 5 were combined across 38 LMICs. The sample comprised 87 286 children aged 3 and 4 years. Paternal stimulation was measured by the number of play and learning activities (up to 6) a father engaged in with his child over the past 3 days. Linear regression models were used to estimate standardized mean differences in height-for-age z-scores and Early Childhood Development Index (ECDI) z-scores across 3 levels of paternal stimulation, after controlling for other caregivers' stimulation and demographic covariates.

RESULTS

A total of 47.8% of fathers did not engage in any stimulation activities, whereas 6.4% of fathers engaged in 5 or 6 stimulation activities. Children whose fathers were moderately engaged in stimulation (1-4 activities) showed ECDI scores that were 0.09 SD (95% confidence interval [CI]: -0.12 to -0.06) lower than children whose fathers were highly engaged; children whose fathers were unengaged showed ECDI scores that were 0.14 SD lower (95% CI: -0.17 to -0.12). Neither moderate paternal stimulation nor lack of paternal stimulation was associated with height-for-age z-scores, relative to high stimulation.

CONCLUSION

Increasing paternal engagement in stimulation is likely to improve early child development in LMICs.