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Mascheretti S, Lampis V, Andreola C, Lecce S, Dionne G. Continuity and change of genetic and environmental influences on reading and reading-related neurocognitive skills: A systematic review of longitudinal twin studies. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2024; 159:105576. [PMID: 38331130 DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2024.105576] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/23/2023] [Revised: 01/27/2024] [Accepted: 02/03/2024] [Indexed: 02/10/2024]
Abstract
Learning to read is a dynamic and cumulative process beginning from birth and continuing through the school years. Empirical data showed a decrease of additive genetic (A) and shared environmental (C) components and an increase of non-shared environmental (E) components from preschool to middle school. However, our understanding of the aetiology of continuity and change of reading skills across this developmental period is limited. Following the PRISMA guidelines, we reviewed the results of behavioral genetic research on reading-related neurocognitive skills of 13 longitudinal twin and adoptive sibling studies spanning from preschool/kindergarten to middle/high school. Our findings suggested that continuity was mainly explained by A components throughout the study periods, and, although to a lesser extent and less consistently, by C components during the early years; change was explained by new E components throughout the years, and also by new A components in the early years. As we are interested in models relevant to traits with early onset during development, it is crucial to deepen the investigation of how developmental time can moderate the genetic and environmental variation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sara Mascheretti
- Department of Brain and Behavioral Sciences, University of Pavia, Piazza Botta 6, 27100 Pavia, Italy; Child Psychopathology Unit, Scientific Institute IRCCS Eugenio Medea, via don Luigi Monza 20, 23842 Bosisio Parini, Italy.
| | - Valentina Lampis
- Department of Brain and Behavioral Sciences, University of Pavia, Piazza Botta 6, 27100 Pavia, Italy; Child Psychopathology Unit, Scientific Institute IRCCS Eugenio Medea, via don Luigi Monza 20, 23842 Bosisio Parini, Italy
| | - Chiara Andreola
- Université de Paris, Laboratoire de Psychologie de Développement et de l'Éducation de l'Enfant (LaPsyDÉ), 46 rue Saint Jacques, 75005 Paris, France
| | - Serena Lecce
- Department of Brain and Behavioral Sciences, University of Pavia, Piazza Botta 6, 27100 Pavia, Italy
| | - Ginette Dionne
- École de Psychologie, Université Laval, Pavillon Félix-Antoine-Savard, 2325 rue des Bibliothèques, Quebec City, Quebec G1V 0A6, Canada.
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Calì F, Di Blasi FD, Avola E, Vinci M, Musumeci A, Gloria A, Greco D, Raciti DR, Zagami A, Rizzo B, Città S, Federico C, Vetri L, Saccone S, Buono S. Specific Learning Disorders: Variation Analysis of 15 Candidate Genes in 9 Multiplex Families. MEDICINA (KAUNAS, LITHUANIA) 2023; 59:1503. [PMID: 37629793 PMCID: PMC10456226 DOI: 10.3390/medicina59081503] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/14/2023] [Revised: 08/13/2023] [Accepted: 08/20/2023] [Indexed: 08/27/2023]
Abstract
Background and Objectives: Specific Learning Disorder (SLD) is a complex neurobiological disorder characterized by a persistent difficult in reading (dyslexia), written expression (dysgraphia), and mathematics (dyscalculia). The hereditary and genetic component is one of the underlying causes of SLD, but the relationship between genes and the environment should be considered. Several genetic studies were performed in different populations to identify causative genes. Materials and Methods: Here, we show the analysis of 9 multiplex families with at least 2 individuals diagnosed with SLD per family, with a total of 37 persons, 21 of whom are young subjects with SLD, by means of Next-Generation Sequencing (NGS) to identify possible causative mutations in a panel of 15 candidate genes: CCPG1, CYP19A1, DCDC2, DGKI, DIP2A, DYM, GCFC2, KIAA0319, MC5R, MRPL19, NEDD4L, PCNT, PRMT2, ROBO1, and S100B. Results: We detected, in eight families out nine, SNP variants in the DGKI, DIP2A, KIAA0319, and PCNT genes, even if in silico analysis did not show any causative effect on this behavioral condition. In all cases, the mutation was transmitted by one of the two parents, thus excluding the case of de novo mutation. Moreover, the parent carrying the allelic variant transmitted to the children, in six out of seven families, reports language difficulties. Conclusions: Although the present results cannot be considered conclusive due to the limited sample size, the identification of genetic variants in the above genes can provide input for further research on the same, as well as on other genes/mutations, to better understand the genetic basis of this disorder, and from this perspective, to better understand also the neuropsychological and social aspects connected to this disorder, which affects an increasing number of young people.
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Affiliation(s)
- Francesco Calì
- Oasi Research Institute—IRCCS, Via Conte Ruggero 73, 94018 Troina, Italy; (F.C.); (F.D.D.B.); (S.B.)
| | | | - Emanuela Avola
- Oasi Research Institute—IRCCS, Via Conte Ruggero 73, 94018 Troina, Italy; (F.C.); (F.D.D.B.); (S.B.)
| | - Mirella Vinci
- Oasi Research Institute—IRCCS, Via Conte Ruggero 73, 94018 Troina, Italy; (F.C.); (F.D.D.B.); (S.B.)
| | - Antonino Musumeci
- Oasi Research Institute—IRCCS, Via Conte Ruggero 73, 94018 Troina, Italy; (F.C.); (F.D.D.B.); (S.B.)
| | - Angelo Gloria
- Oasi Research Institute—IRCCS, Via Conte Ruggero 73, 94018 Troina, Italy; (F.C.); (F.D.D.B.); (S.B.)
| | - Donatella Greco
- Oasi Research Institute—IRCCS, Via Conte Ruggero 73, 94018 Troina, Italy; (F.C.); (F.D.D.B.); (S.B.)
| | - Daniela Rita Raciti
- Oasi Research Institute—IRCCS, Via Conte Ruggero 73, 94018 Troina, Italy; (F.C.); (F.D.D.B.); (S.B.)
| | - Alessandro Zagami
- Oasi Research Institute—IRCCS, Via Conte Ruggero 73, 94018 Troina, Italy; (F.C.); (F.D.D.B.); (S.B.)
| | - Biagio Rizzo
- Oasi Research Institute—IRCCS, Via Conte Ruggero 73, 94018 Troina, Italy; (F.C.); (F.D.D.B.); (S.B.)
| | - Santina Città
- Oasi Research Institute—IRCCS, Via Conte Ruggero 73, 94018 Troina, Italy; (F.C.); (F.D.D.B.); (S.B.)
| | - Concetta Federico
- Department Biological, Geological and Environmental Sciences, University of Catania, Via Androne 81, 95124 Catania, Italy
| | - Luigi Vetri
- Oasi Research Institute—IRCCS, Via Conte Ruggero 73, 94018 Troina, Italy; (F.C.); (F.D.D.B.); (S.B.)
| | - Salvatore Saccone
- Department Biological, Geological and Environmental Sciences, University of Catania, Via Androne 81, 95124 Catania, Italy
| | - Serafino Buono
- Oasi Research Institute—IRCCS, Via Conte Ruggero 73, 94018 Troina, Italy; (F.C.); (F.D.D.B.); (S.B.)
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Erbeli F, He K, Cheek C, Rice M, Qian X. Exploring the Machine Learning Paradigm in Determining Risk for Reading Disability. SCIENTIFIC STUDIES OF READING : THE OFFICIAL JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY FOR THE SCIENTIFIC STUDY OF READING 2022; 27:5-20. [PMID: 36843656 PMCID: PMC9957563 DOI: 10.1080/10888438.2022.2115914] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
Purpose Researchers have developed a constellation model of decoding-related reading disabilities (RD) to improve the RD risk determination. The model's hallmark is its inclusion of various RD indicators to determine RD risk. Classification methods such as logistic regression (LR) might be one way to determine RD risk within the constellation model framework. However, some issues may arise with applying the logistic regression method (e.g., multicollinearity). Machine learning techniques, such as random forest (RF), might assist in overcoming these limitations. They can better deal with complex data relations than traditional approaches. We examined the prediction performance of RF and compared it against LR to determine RD risk. Method The sample comprised 12,171 students from Florida whose third-grade RD risk was operationalized using the constellation model with one, two, three, or four RD indicators in first and second grade. Results Results revealed that LR and RF performed on par in accurately predicting RD risk. Regarding predictor importance, reading fluency was consistently the most critical predictor for RD risk. Conclusion Findings suggest that RF does not outperform LR in RD prediction accuracy in models with multiple linearly related predictors. Findings also highlight including reading fluency in early identification batteries for later RD determination.
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Affiliation(s)
- Florina Erbeli
- Department of Educational Psychology, Texas A&M University
| | - Kai He
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Texas A&M University
| | | | - Marianne Rice
- Department of Educational Psychology, Texas A&M University
| | - Xiaoning Qian
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Texas A&M University
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Erbeli F, Rice M, Paracchini S. Insights into Dyslexia Genetics Research from the Last Two Decades. Brain Sci 2021; 12:27. [PMID: 35053771 PMCID: PMC8773624 DOI: 10.3390/brainsci12010027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2021] [Revised: 12/21/2021] [Accepted: 12/23/2021] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Dyslexia, a specific reading disability, is a common (up to 10% of children) and highly heritable (~70%) neurodevelopmental disorder. Behavioral and molecular genetic approaches are aimed towards dissecting its significant genetic component. In the proposed review, we will summarize advances in twin and molecular genetic research from the past 20 years. First, we will briefly outline the clinical and educational presentation and epidemiology of dyslexia. Next, we will summarize results from twin studies, followed by molecular genetic research (e.g., genome-wide association studies (GWASs)). In particular, we will highlight converging key insights from genetic research. (1) Dyslexia is a highly polygenic neurodevelopmental disorder with a complex genetic architecture. (2) Dyslexia categories share a large proportion of genetics with continuously distributed measures of reading skills, with shared genetic risks also seen across development. (3) Dyslexia genetic risks are shared with those implicated in many other neurodevelopmental disorders (e.g., developmental language disorder and dyscalculia). Finally, we will discuss the implications and future directions. As the diversity of genetic studies continues to increase through international collaborate efforts, we will highlight the challenges in advances of genetics discoveries in this field.
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Affiliation(s)
- Florina Erbeli
- Department of Educational Psychology, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843, USA;
| | - Marianne Rice
- Department of Educational Psychology, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843, USA;
| | - Silvia Paracchini
- School of Medicine, University of St Andrews, St Andrews KY16 9AJ, UK;
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Shapland CY, Verhoef E, Davey Smith G, Fisher SE, Verhulst B, Dale PS, St Pourcain B. Multivariate genome-wide covariance analyses of literacy, language and working memory skills reveal distinct etiologies. NPJ SCIENCE OF LEARNING 2021; 6:23. [PMID: 34413317 PMCID: PMC8377061 DOI: 10.1038/s41539-021-00101-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/25/2020] [Accepted: 07/29/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Several abilities outside literacy proper are associated with reading and spelling, both phenotypically and genetically, though our knowledge of multivariate genomic covariance structures is incomplete. Here, we introduce structural models describing genetic and residual influences between traits to study multivariate links across measures of literacy, phonological awareness, oral language, and phonological working memory (PWM) in unrelated UK youth (8-13 years, N = 6453). We find that all phenotypes share a large proportion of underlying genetic variation, although especially oral language and PWM reveal substantial differences in their genetic variance composition with substantial trait-specific genetic influences. Multivariate genetic and residual trait covariance showed concordant patterns, except for marked differences between oral language and literacy/phonological awareness, where strong genetic links contrasted near-zero residual overlap. These findings suggest differences in etiological mechanisms, acting beyond a pleiotropic set of genetic variants, and implicate variation in trait modifiability even among phenotypes that have high genetic correlations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chin Yang Shapland
- MRC Integrative Epidemiology Unit, University of Bristol, Bristol, UK.
- Population Health Sciences, University of Bristol, Bristol, UK.
- Language and Genetics Department, Max Planck Institute for Psycholinguistics, Nijmegen, The Netherlands.
| | - Ellen Verhoef
- Language and Genetics Department, Max Planck Institute for Psycholinguistics, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
- International Max Planck Research School for Language Sciences, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - George Davey Smith
- MRC Integrative Epidemiology Unit, University of Bristol, Bristol, UK
- Population Health Sciences, University of Bristol, Bristol, UK
| | - Simon E Fisher
- Language and Genetics Department, Max Planck Institute for Psycholinguistics, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
- Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition and Behaviour, Radboud University, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | | | - Philip S Dale
- Speech & Hearing Sciences, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, NM, USA
| | - Beate St Pourcain
- MRC Integrative Epidemiology Unit, University of Bristol, Bristol, UK.
- Language and Genetics Department, Max Planck Institute for Psycholinguistics, Nijmegen, The Netherlands.
- Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition and Behaviour, Radboud University, Nijmegen, The Netherlands.
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ChanLin LJ. Engaging Children’s Reading with Reflective Augmented Reality. LIBRI 2021. [DOI: 10.1515/libri-2019-0147] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
Abstract
This study explored the integration of mobile augmented reality (AR) into reading in elementary schools. With the reflective messages designed using AR (termed as reflective AR), children were guided to process the story content through preview, reading, and review of the content. The study focused on the enhancement of children’s reading comprehension using reflective AR and the implementation processes of reading with reflective AR experienced by teachers and children. A blended research approach was used for data collection. Via the quantitative approach, the reading comprehension scores of the children in the reflective AR and control group (without reflective AR) were compared. Via the qualitative approach, observations and interviews with the teachers from four elementary schools were conducted. It was observed that students achieved better reading scores when using the reflective AR approach (p < 0.001). Both teachers and students enjoyed the AR reading exploration. Teachers were devoted to planning the settings required in the reading exploration. Reading via the AR approach of preview–reading–review engaged children in the reading content. From the study, the implementation of AR reflective reading provides a model to guide children’s reading. However, the research is preliminary and might have sampling limitations for generalization. Future research on diverse learning settings is needed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lih-Juan ChanLin
- Library & Infomation Science , Fu Jen Catholic University , 510 Zhuang-Jen Road , Xin-Zhuang Dist , New Taipei City , Taiwan
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7
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The heritability of reading and reading-related neurocognitive components: A multi-level meta-analysis. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2020; 121:175-200. [PMID: 33246020 DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2020.11.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/08/2020] [Revised: 11/13/2020] [Accepted: 11/19/2020] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
Abstract
Reading ability is a complex task requiring the integration of multiple cognitive and perceptual systems supporting language, visual and orthographic processes, working memory, attention, motor movements, and higher-level comprehension and cognition. Estimates of genetic and environmental influences for some of these reading-related neurocognitive components vary across reports. By using a multi-level meta-analysis approach, we synthesized the results of behavioral genetic research on reading-related neurocognitive components (i.e. general reading, letter-word knowledge, phonological decoding, reading comprehension, spelling, phonological awareness, rapid automatized naming, and language) of 49 twin studies spanning 4.1-18.5 years of age, with a total sample size of more than 38,000 individuals. Except for language for which shared environment seems to play a more important role, the causal architecture across most of the reading-related neurocognitive components can be represented by the following equation a² > e² > c². Moderators analysis revealed that sex and spoken language did not affect the heritability of any reading-related skills; school grade levels moderated the heritability of general reading, reading comprehension and phonological awareness.
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Taylor J, Erbeli F, Hart SA, Johnson W. Early classroom reading gains moderate shared environmental influences on reading comprehension in adolescence. J Child Psychol Psychiatry 2020; 61:689-698. [PMID: 31595512 PMCID: PMC7138719 DOI: 10.1111/jcpp.13134] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 08/30/2019] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Reading is important for children's success in school and beyond, yet many adolescents fail to reach expected levels of proficiency. This highlights the need to better understand the factors that influence reading effectiveness over time, including genes and environment. Greater expression of genetic influence on first- and second-grade reading fluency has been observed in higher quality classroom reading environments. To what degree this early environment continues to influence genetic and other environmental influences on later reading is unknown and was tested in this study. METHODS The quality of the early classroom reading environment was approximated by gains in oral reading fluency (ORF) across the school year among first- or second-grade classmates of 546 MZ and 1,016 DZ twin children (mean age = 7.13 years; SD = 0.45) who had reading comprehension scores from a state-wide mandatory test in school year 2013-2014 when most twin pairs were in seventh to tenth grade (mean age = 14.41; SD = 1.13) in a variable called Class ORF Gain. Biometrical models were fit to the data to assess whether Class ORF Gain moderated the genetic, shared environmental and/or nonshared environmental variance associated with adolescent reading comprehension. RESULTS Class ORF Gain moderated shared environmental influences on reading comprehension 6-9 years later. When early classroom reading gains were poor, variability in reading comprehension in adolescence was high and was associated largely with shared environmental influences. When early classroom reading gains were good, overall and shared environmentally influenced variability in adolescent reading comprehension was lower so that genetic influences were most relevant in explaining that variability. CONCLUSIONS Our findings suggested that classroom reading environment experienced when children were learning to read had a lasting influence on the factors underlying variability in later reading effectiveness.
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Erbeli F, van Bergen E, Hart SA. Unraveling the Relation Between Reading Comprehension and Print Exposure. Child Dev 2019; 91:1548-1562. [PMID: 31732976 DOI: 10.1111/cdev.13339] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
The purpose of this study was to test the directionality of influence between reading comprehension (RC) and print exposure (PE), thereby estimating genetic and environmental effects of this relation. The sample consisted of 910 twins in fourth through ninth grades (Mage = 12.33 years, SD = 1.41) from the Florida Twin Project on Reading, Behavior, and Environment. Using direction-of-causation model in a twin design, results supported a direction of influence running from RC to PE. This relation was underpinned by genetic and environmental factors of RC as well as PE. Implications for reading education are discussed.
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Erbeli F, Campbell AR, Hart SA. Using Cholesky Decomposition to Explore Individual Differences in Longitudinal Relations between Reading Skills. J Vis Exp 2019. [PMID: 31609333 DOI: 10.3791/60061] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/31/2022] Open
Abstract
The Cholesky decomposition method is the gold standard used in the field of behavioral genetics. The method is popular because it is easy to program and solve. Using this method, researchers can explore individual differences in longitudinal relations of different variables across multiple time points. The method allows investigators to decompose variance into (1) unique genetic, shared and non-shared environmental effects that arise at specific time points as well as (2) overlapping genetic, shared and non-shared environmental effects that carry over from one time point to another. However, the method does not identify the mechanisms or origins underlying these effects. The current report focuses on application of the Cholesky decomposition method in the field of educational psychology. Specifically, it discusses individual differences in longitudinal relations between kindergarten letter knowledge, kindergarten phonological awareness, first grade word-level reading skills, and seventh grade reading comprehension.
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Affiliation(s)
- Florina Erbeli
- Department of Educational Psychology, Texas A&M University;
| | | | - Sara A Hart
- Department of Psychology and Florida Center for Reading Research, Florida State University
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Peng P, Fuchs D, Fuchs LS, Elleman AM, Kearns DM, Gilbert JK, Compton DL, Cho E, Patton S. A Longitudinal Analysis of the Trajectories and Predictors of Word Reading and Reading Comprehension Development Among At-Risk Readers. JOURNAL OF LEARNING DISABILITIES 2019. [PMID: 30381981 DOI: 10.1177/00222194188090] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/14/2023]
Abstract
This study explored the developmental trajectories and predictors of word reading and reading comprehension among young at-risk readers. In fall of first grade, 185 students identified as at-risk for reading difficulties were assessed on measures of domain-specific skills (phonological awareness, letter knowledge, and vocabulary), domain-general skills (working memory, nonverbal reasoning, and processing speed), and word reading and reading comprehension. Word reading and reading comprehension were assessed again in spring of grades 1-4. Individual growth curve modeling showed that the children demonstrated decelerated growth on word reading and linear growth on reading comprehension, although their performance on both word reading and reading comprehension were consistently below average on national norms. After controlling for word reading and reading comprehension in first grade, letter knowledge predicted growth in word reading; vocabulary and nonverbal reasoning predicted growth in reading comprehension. That is, we found different developmental trajectories and different predictors for word reading and reading comprehension among our at-risk sample. Implications are discussed for theory and early reading instruction for at-risk children.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peng Peng
- 1 University of Texas at Austin, USA
| | - Douglas Fuchs
- 2 Peabody College of Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN, USA
| | - Lynn S Fuchs
- 2 Peabody College of Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN, USA
| | - Amy M Elleman
- 3 Middle Tennessee State University, Mufreesboro, USA
| | | | | | | | - Eunsoo Cho
- 6 Michigan State University, East Lansing, USA
| | - Samuel Patton
- 2 Peabody College of Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN, USA
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Peng P, Fuchs D, Fuchs LS, Elleman AM, Kearns DM, Gilbert JK, Compton DL, Cho E, Patton S. A Longitudinal Analysis of the Trajectories and Predictors of Word Reading and Reading Comprehension Development Among At-Risk Readers. JOURNAL OF LEARNING DISABILITIES 2018; 52:195-208. [PMID: 30381981 PMCID: PMC6445730 DOI: 10.1177/0022219418809080] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/09/2023]
Abstract
This study explored the developmental trajectories and predictors of word reading and reading comprehension among young at-risk readers. In fall of first grade, 185 students identified as at-risk for reading difficulties were assessed on measures of domain-specific skills (phonological awareness, letter knowledge, and vocabulary), domain-general skills (working memory, nonverbal reasoning, and processing speed), and word reading and reading comprehension. Word reading and reading comprehension were assessed again in spring of grades 1-4. Individual growth curve modeling showed that the children demonstrated decelerated growth on word reading and linear growth on reading comprehension, although their performance on both word reading and reading comprehension were consistently below average on national norms. After controlling for word reading and reading comprehension in first grade, letter knowledge predicted growth in word reading; vocabulary and nonverbal reasoning predicted growth in reading comprehension. That is, we found different developmental trajectories and different predictors for word reading and reading comprehension among our at-risk sample. Implications are discussed for theory and early reading instruction for at-risk children.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peng Peng
- 1 University of Texas at Austin, USA
| | - Douglas Fuchs
- 2 Peabody College of Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN, USA
| | - Lynn S Fuchs
- 2 Peabody College of Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN, USA
| | - Amy M Elleman
- 3 Middle Tennessee State University, Mufreesboro, USA
| | | | | | | | - Eunsoo Cho
- 6 Michigan State University, East Lansing, USA
| | - Samuel Patton
- 2 Peabody College of Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN, USA
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