A meta-analysis of forgiveness education interventions' effects on forgiveness and anger in children and adolescents

Developing conceptions of forgiveness across the lifespan

Understanding how to respond to transgressions is central to cooperation, yet little is known about how individuals understand the consequences of these responses. Accordingly, the current study explored children's (ages 5-9), adolescents' (ages 11-14), and adults' (N = 544, predominantly White, ~50% female, tested in 2021) understandings of three such responses-forgiveness, punishment, and doing nothing. At all ages, participants differentiated between the consequences of these three responses. Forgiveness was associated with more positive and fewer negative outcomes, while the opposite was true for punishment and doing nothing. With age, participants were less likely to expect positive outcomes, and this effect was strongest for punishment and doing nothing. The results of this study allow novel insights into reasoning about three important response strategies.

Relations among Memories of Parental Acceptance-Rejection, Psychological (Mal)Adjustment, Forgiveness, and Vengeance among Iranian Adults

The study investigated relations among adults' memories of parental acceptance-rejection in childhood and adults' current dispositions toward forgiveness and vengeance, as mediated by psychological (mal)adjustment. Data were collected from 258 adults (female = 183, Age range = 17-47 years; Mage = 39; SD = 11.4). Measures used were the short forms of the maternal and paternal Adult Parental Acceptance-Rejection Questionnaires (PARQ), the short form of the Adult Personality Assessment Questionnaire (PAQ), the Heartland Forgiveness Scale (HFS), the Vengeance Scale (VS-10), and a Personal Information Form (PIF). Results showed that maternal and paternal rejection was positively associated with psychological maladjustment and negatively correlated with forgiveness for both men and women. Moreover, psychological maladjustment showed a negative relation with forgiveness and a positive relation with vengeance. Findings revealed that parental (maternal and paternal) rejection was not significantly associated with vengeance for men. However, maternal (not paternal) rejection was significantly associated with a vengeance for women. Path analysis revealed a significant indirect effect of maternal and paternal rejection on forgiveness and vengeance through psychological maladjustment. Results found no significant gender differences in the path analyses. Findings are discussed considering the Iranian culture and religious beliefs. Implications of the results and future research directions are discussed.

Peer Victimization and Subjective Well-Being Among Chinese Adolescents: Moderated Mediation by Forgiveness and Self-Esteem

Considerable developmental research has shown an association between peer victimization and subjective well-being among adolescents. However, the mediating processes and protective factors that constrain this association are less understood. To fill these gaps, we investigated whether self-esteem mediates the association between peer victimization and subjective well-being and whether forgiveness moderates the direct and indirect associations of peer victimization with adolescents' subjective well-being via self-esteem. A large sample of 2,758 adolescents (M_age = 13.53 years, SD = 1.06) from 10 middle schools in China participated in this study. Participants provided data on demographic variables, peer victimization, self-esteem, forgiveness, and subjective well-being by answering anonymous questionnaires. After controlling for demographic covariates, we found that self-esteem mediated the relationship between peer victimization and subjective well-being. Furthermore, as a protective factor, forgiveness moderated the relationship between peer victimization and self-esteem. Consistent with the protective-reactive model, when adolescents experienced more peer victimization, those with higher forgiveness levels exhibited a greater decline in self-esteem, and low self-esteem was then associated with decreased subjective well-being. These findings demonstrate the utility of examining both mediating and moderating factors in this relationship and highlight the negative impact of peer victimization on adolescent self-worth and the limited role of forgiveness as a protective factor.