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Drulovic J, Tamas O, Nikolovski N, Momcilovic N, Radisic V, Andabaka M, Jevtic B, Stegnjaic G, Lazarevic M, Veselinovic N, Budimkic M, Mesaros S, Miljkovic D, Pekmezovic T. Vaccine-Induced Humoral and Cellular Response to SARS-CoV-2 in Multiple Sclerosis Patients on Ocrelizumab. Vaccines (Basel) 2025; 13:488. [PMID: 40432100 PMCID: PMC12115558 DOI: 10.3390/vaccines13050488] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/06/2025] [Revised: 04/03/2025] [Accepted: 04/15/2025] [Indexed: 05/29/2025] Open
Abstract
Background/Objectives: The aim of our study was to investigate B cell and T cell responses in people with multiple sclerosis (PwMS) treated with ocrelizumab, a humanized anti-CD20 antibody, who were vaccinated with second and/or booster doses of various vaccine brands against COVID-19. Additionally, we detected the outcomes related to COVID-19 in PwMS after vaccination, based on follow-up for at least 12 months. Methods: We enrolled 91 PwMS on ocrelizumab and 42 healthy controls (HCs) in a prospective, single-center study, conducted at the Clinic of Neurology, UCCS, between January 2022 and October 2024. The serological responses were measured using the spike receptor-binding domain (RBD) Architect SARS-CoV-2 IgG Quant kit (Abbot), and cellular responses were measured by quantifying IFN-γ secretion in blood incubated with SARS-CoV-2 antigens. Results: A total of 58.2% (53/91) of PwMS on ocrelizumab and 100% of the HCs (42/42) were seropositive after a second or booster vaccination (p < 0.001), irrespective of the vaccine brand received. Anti-spike antibody levels were significantly lower in PwMS on ocrelizumab compared to the HCs (p < 0.001), again irrespective of the vaccine type. Interferon-γ responses were detected in 95.6% of the PwMS receiving ocrelizumab therapy and 97.6% of HCs after vaccination (p = 0.570). In our cohort, PCR-confirmed SARS-CoV-2 infections after vaccination occurred in a similar proportion of the PwMS (45/91, 49.5%) and HCs (15/32, 46.9%) (p = 0.139). Most of the PwMS (36/45, 79.2%) and HCs (13/15, 87.8%) had COVID-19 of mild severity. Conclusions: PwMS treated with ocrelizumab developed diminished humoral and robust cellular responses following two and three SARS-CoV-2 vaccinations. The obtained immunity after SARS-CoV-2 vaccination may translate into lower incidence and severity of COVID-19.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jelena Drulovic
- Clinic of Neurology, University Clinical Center of Serbia, 11158 Belgrade, Serbia; (O.T.); (N.M.); (V.R.); (M.A.); (N.V.); (M.B.); (S.M.)
- Faculty of Medicine, University of Belgrade, 11000 Belgrade, Serbia
| | - Olivera Tamas
- Clinic of Neurology, University Clinical Center of Serbia, 11158 Belgrade, Serbia; (O.T.); (N.M.); (V.R.); (M.A.); (N.V.); (M.B.); (S.M.)
- Faculty of Medicine, University of Belgrade, 11000 Belgrade, Serbia
| | - Neda Nikolovski
- Institute for Biological Research “Sinisa Stankovic”, University of Belgrade, 11000 Belgrade, Serbia; (N.N.); (B.J.); (G.S.); (M.L.); (D.M.)
| | - Nikola Momcilovic
- Clinic of Neurology, University Clinical Center of Serbia, 11158 Belgrade, Serbia; (O.T.); (N.M.); (V.R.); (M.A.); (N.V.); (M.B.); (S.M.)
| | - Vanja Radisic
- Clinic of Neurology, University Clinical Center of Serbia, 11158 Belgrade, Serbia; (O.T.); (N.M.); (V.R.); (M.A.); (N.V.); (M.B.); (S.M.)
| | - Marko Andabaka
- Clinic of Neurology, University Clinical Center of Serbia, 11158 Belgrade, Serbia; (O.T.); (N.M.); (V.R.); (M.A.); (N.V.); (M.B.); (S.M.)
| | - Bojan Jevtic
- Institute for Biological Research “Sinisa Stankovic”, University of Belgrade, 11000 Belgrade, Serbia; (N.N.); (B.J.); (G.S.); (M.L.); (D.M.)
| | - Goran Stegnjaic
- Institute for Biological Research “Sinisa Stankovic”, University of Belgrade, 11000 Belgrade, Serbia; (N.N.); (B.J.); (G.S.); (M.L.); (D.M.)
| | - Milica Lazarevic
- Institute for Biological Research “Sinisa Stankovic”, University of Belgrade, 11000 Belgrade, Serbia; (N.N.); (B.J.); (G.S.); (M.L.); (D.M.)
| | - Nikola Veselinovic
- Clinic of Neurology, University Clinical Center of Serbia, 11158 Belgrade, Serbia; (O.T.); (N.M.); (V.R.); (M.A.); (N.V.); (M.B.); (S.M.)
- Faculty of Medicine, University of Belgrade, 11000 Belgrade, Serbia
| | - Maja Budimkic
- Clinic of Neurology, University Clinical Center of Serbia, 11158 Belgrade, Serbia; (O.T.); (N.M.); (V.R.); (M.A.); (N.V.); (M.B.); (S.M.)
- Faculty of Medicine, University of Belgrade, 11000 Belgrade, Serbia
| | - Sarlota Mesaros
- Clinic of Neurology, University Clinical Center of Serbia, 11158 Belgrade, Serbia; (O.T.); (N.M.); (V.R.); (M.A.); (N.V.); (M.B.); (S.M.)
- Faculty of Medicine, University of Belgrade, 11000 Belgrade, Serbia
| | - Djordje Miljkovic
- Institute for Biological Research “Sinisa Stankovic”, University of Belgrade, 11000 Belgrade, Serbia; (N.N.); (B.J.); (G.S.); (M.L.); (D.M.)
| | - Tatjana Pekmezovic
- Institute of Epidemiology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Belgrade, 11000 Belgrade, Serbia;
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Bazylewicz M, Zajkowska M, Gudowska-Sawczuk M, Kułakowski R, Mroczko J, Mirowska-Guzel D, Kulikowska-Łoś J, Czarnowska A, Mroczko B, Kochanowicz J, Kułakowska A. Humoral and Cellular Immunity After Vaccination Against SARS-CoV-2 in Relapsing-Remitting Multiple Sclerosis Patients Treated with Interferon Beta and Dimethyl Fumarate. Biomedicines 2025; 13:153. [PMID: 39857737 PMCID: PMC11763107 DOI: 10.3390/biomedicines13010153] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2024] [Revised: 01/07/2025] [Accepted: 01/08/2025] [Indexed: 01/27/2025] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND/OBJECTIVES The impact of vaccines against SARS-CoV-2 on the immunity of patients with multiple sclerosis (PwMS) is still not fully known. Further clarification could help address medical concerns related to the use of immunosuppressive and immunomodulatory medications, known as disease-modifying therapies (DMTs), in PwMS, as well as ensure adequate protection against severe outcomes of COVID-19. Therefore, the aim of our study was to evaluate the humoral and cellular immune response in PwMS treated with DMTs. METHODS The concentrations of IgG Spike (S) anti-SARS-CoV-2 antibodies and IgG Nucleocapsid (N) anti-SARS-CoV-2 antibodies, as well as interferon-gamma (IFN-γ) titers were analyzed in PwMS groups treated with dimethyl fumarate (DMF), interferon beta (IFN), and healthy control group. RESULTS Almost 100% of PwMS experienced seroconversion, which resulted from either vaccination and/or prior infection. Additionally, there were no significant differences between the study and control groups in terms of IgG (S) and (N) anti-SARS-CoV-2 antibody levels. However, interferon-gamma titers were lower in both PwMS groups, which may indicate adequate humoral and decreased cellular response to the examined PwMS. Additionally, after the division of the whole study group into two subgroups according to the time since the last vaccination, IgG (S) anti-SARS-CoV-2 and IFN-γ concentrations were significantly lower in the case of patients who were immunized more than 200 days before sample collection. No differences were observed in the case of subgroups in which sample collection was less than 200 days after vaccination when compared to the control group. CONCLUSIONS This could indicate a time-related decrease in immunity in PwMS treated with DMTs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marcin Bazylewicz
- Department of Neurology, Medical University of Bialystok, 15-276 Bialystok, Poland; (J.K.-Ł.); (A.C.); (J.K.); (A.K.)
| | - Monika Zajkowska
- Department of Neurodegeneration Diagnostics, Medical University of Bialystok, 15-269 Bialystok, Poland; (M.Z.); (J.M.); (B.M.)
| | - Monika Gudowska-Sawczuk
- Department of Biochemical Diagnostics, Medical University of Bialystok, 15-269 Bialystok, Poland;
| | - Rafał Kułakowski
- Department of Clinical and Experimental Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine, Medical University of Warsaw, 02-091 Warsaw, Poland; (R.K.); (D.M.-G.)
| | - Jan Mroczko
- Department of Neurodegeneration Diagnostics, Medical University of Bialystok, 15-269 Bialystok, Poland; (M.Z.); (J.M.); (B.M.)
- Department of Biochemical Diagnostics, Medical University of Bialystok, 15-269 Bialystok, Poland;
| | - Dagmara Mirowska-Guzel
- Department of Clinical and Experimental Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine, Medical University of Warsaw, 02-091 Warsaw, Poland; (R.K.); (D.M.-G.)
| | - Joanna Kulikowska-Łoś
- Department of Neurology, Medical University of Bialystok, 15-276 Bialystok, Poland; (J.K.-Ł.); (A.C.); (J.K.); (A.K.)
| | - Agata Czarnowska
- Department of Neurology, Medical University of Bialystok, 15-276 Bialystok, Poland; (J.K.-Ł.); (A.C.); (J.K.); (A.K.)
| | - Barbara Mroczko
- Department of Neurodegeneration Diagnostics, Medical University of Bialystok, 15-269 Bialystok, Poland; (M.Z.); (J.M.); (B.M.)
- Department of Biochemical Diagnostics, Medical University of Bialystok, 15-269 Bialystok, Poland;
| | - Jan Kochanowicz
- Department of Neurology, Medical University of Bialystok, 15-276 Bialystok, Poland; (J.K.-Ł.); (A.C.); (J.K.); (A.K.)
| | - Alina Kułakowska
- Department of Neurology, Medical University of Bialystok, 15-276 Bialystok, Poland; (J.K.-Ł.); (A.C.); (J.K.); (A.K.)
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Rabenstein M, Thomas OG, Carlin G, Khademi M, Högelin KA, Malmeström C, Axelsson M, Brandt AF, Gafvelin G, Grönlund H, Kockum I, Piehl F, Lycke J, Olsson T, Hessa T. The impact of hybrid immunity on immune responses after SARS-CoV-2 vaccination in persons with multiple sclerosis treated with disease-modifying therapies. Eur J Neurol 2023; 30:3789-3798. [PMID: 37522464 DOI: 10.1111/ene.16015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/09/2022] [Revised: 06/22/2023] [Accepted: 07/27/2023] [Indexed: 08/01/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE Hybrid immunity to severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) develops from a combination of natural infection and vaccine-generated immunity. Multiple sclerosis (MS) disease-modifying therapies (DMTs) have the potential to impact humoral and cellular immunity induced by SARS-CoV-2 vaccination and infection. The aims were to compare antibody and T-cell responses after SARS-CoV-2 mRNA vaccination in persons with MS (pwMS) treated with different DMTs and to assess differences between naïvely vaccinated pwMS and pwMS with hybrid immunity vaccinated following a previous SARS-CoV-2 infection. METHODS Antibody and T-cell responses were determined in pwMS at baseline and 4 and 12 weeks after the second dose of SARS-CoV-2 vaccination in 143 pwMS with or without previous SARS-CoV-2 infection and 40 healthy controls (HCs). The MS cohort comprised natalizumab (n = 22), dimethylfumarate (n = 23), fingolimod (n = 38), cladribine (n = 30), alemtuzumab (n = 17) and teriflunomide (n = 13) treated pwMS. Immunoglobulin G antibody responses to SARS-CoV-2 antigens were measured using a multiplex bead assay and FluoroSpot was used to assess T-cell responses (interferon γ and interleukin 13). RESULTS Humoral and T-cell responses to vaccination were comparable between naïvely vaccinated HCs and pwMS treated with natalizumab, dimethylfumarate, cladribine, alemtuzumab and teriflunomide, but were suppressed in fingolimod-treated pwMS. Both fingolimod-treated pwMS and HCs vaccinated following a previous SARS-CoV-2 infection had higher antibody levels 4 weeks after vaccination compared to naïvely vaccinated individuals. Antibody and interferon γ levels 12 weeks after vaccination were positively correlated with time from last treatment course of cladribine. CONCLUSION These findings are of relevance for infection risk mitigation and for vaccination strategies amongst pwMS undergoing DMT.
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Affiliation(s)
- Monika Rabenstein
- Therapeutic Immune Design, Department of Clinical Neuroscience, Center for Molecular Medicine L8:02, Karolinska Institute, Stockholm, Sweden
- Neuroimmunology Unit, Department of Clinical Neuroscience, Center for Molecular Medicine L8:04, Karolinska Institute, Stockholm, Sweden
- Department of Neurology, Faculty of Medicine and University Hospital, University of Cologne, Cologne, Germany
| | - Olivia G Thomas
- Therapeutic Immune Design, Department of Clinical Neuroscience, Center for Molecular Medicine L8:02, Karolinska Institute, Stockholm, Sweden
- Neuroimmunology Unit, Department of Clinical Neuroscience, Center for Molecular Medicine L8:04, Karolinska Institute, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Giorgia Carlin
- Neuroimmunology Unit, Department of Clinical Neuroscience, Center for Molecular Medicine L8:04, Karolinska Institute, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Mohsen Khademi
- Therapeutic Immune Design, Department of Clinical Neuroscience, Center for Molecular Medicine L8:02, Karolinska Institute, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Klara Asplund Högelin
- Therapeutic Immune Design, Department of Clinical Neuroscience, Center for Molecular Medicine L8:02, Karolinska Institute, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Clas Malmeström
- Department of Clinical Neuroscience, Institute of Neuroscience and Physiology at Sahlgrenska Academy, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Markus Axelsson
- Department of Clinical Neuroscience, Institute of Neuroscience and Physiology at Sahlgrenska Academy, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Anne Frandsen Brandt
- Department of Clinical Neuroscience, Institute of Neuroscience and Physiology at Sahlgrenska Academy, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Guro Gafvelin
- Neuroimmunology Unit, Department of Clinical Neuroscience, Center for Molecular Medicine L8:04, Karolinska Institute, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Hans Grönlund
- Neuroimmunology Unit, Department of Clinical Neuroscience, Center for Molecular Medicine L8:04, Karolinska Institute, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Ingrid Kockum
- Therapeutic Immune Design, Department of Clinical Neuroscience, Center for Molecular Medicine L8:02, Karolinska Institute, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Fredrik Piehl
- Therapeutic Immune Design, Department of Clinical Neuroscience, Center for Molecular Medicine L8:02, Karolinska Institute, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Jan Lycke
- Department of Clinical Neuroscience, Institute of Neuroscience and Physiology at Sahlgrenska Academy, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Tomas Olsson
- Therapeutic Immune Design, Department of Clinical Neuroscience, Center for Molecular Medicine L8:02, Karolinska Institute, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Tara Hessa
- Therapeutic Immune Design, Department of Clinical Neuroscience, Center for Molecular Medicine L8:02, Karolinska Institute, Stockholm, Sweden
- Neuroimmunology Unit, Department of Clinical Neuroscience, Center for Molecular Medicine L8:04, Karolinska Institute, Stockholm, Sweden
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4
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Kaido M, Kajiyama Y, Sasaki S, Saitou T, Esa Y, Watanabe Y, Fujimura H, Kobayashi J. [Antibody production capacity after COVID-19 vaccination in immune-mediated neuromuscular diseases under immunotherapy]. Rinsho Shinkeigaku 2023; 63:145-151. [PMID: 36843085 DOI: 10.5692/clinicalneurol.cn-001825] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/28/2023]
Abstract
The post-vaccination antibody response in patients with immune-mediated neuromuscular diseases under immuno-suppressive therapy has not been sufficiently verified. The Japanese Society of Neurology has stated that coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) vaccination should be given priority in patients with immunotherapy-associated neuromuscular diseases; however, data on antibody production to a novel mRNA vaccine are scarce in these patients. In this study, we aimed to measure residual antibody titers after the second dose and produced antibodies after the third dose of SARS-CoV-2 mRNA vaccine in 25 patients with neuromuscular diseases under immuno-suppressive therapy (disease group). We compared the disease group antibody titers with those of 829 healthy employees in our hospital (control group). The disease group included 17 patients with myasthenia gravis, 4 with multiple sclerosis, 3 with inflammatory muscle disease, and 1 with chronic inflammatory demyelinating polyneuropathies. Seven cases of the disease group showed negative antibody levels (<15.0 s/co) before the third vaccination, and antibody titers in the positive cases ranged from 16.9 to 4,589.0 s/co. Three of the seven antibody-negative cases turned positive after the third vaccination, and all but one of the antibody-positive cases showed a booster effect, with antibody titers after the third dose ranging from 245.1 to 85,374.0 s/co (1.0 to 885.0 times higher than those before vaccination). Although the immune response in the disease group was modest compared to the control group, in which antibody titers after the third vaccination ranged from 67.8 to 150,000 s/co (0.9 to 5,402.1 times higher than those before vaccination), the result indicated that a constant immune response was achieved under immuno-suppressive therapy. Even in the control group, three participants tested negative for residual antibody before the third inoculation, and four of the antibody-positive participants (27.7-24,054.0 s/co) lacked a booster effect after the third vaccination.
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Affiliation(s)
- Misako Kaido
- Department of Clinical genetics, Sakai City Medical Center.,Department of Neurology, Sakai City Medical Center
| | - Yuta Kajiyama
- Department of Neurology, Sakai City Medical Center.,Department of Neurology, Osaka University Graduate School of Medicine
| | - Shinya Sasaki
- Department of Clinical Laboratory, Sakai City Medical Center
| | - Takako Saitou
- Department of Clinical Laboratory, Sakai City Medical Center
| | - Yoshiki Esa
- Department of Neurology, Sakai City Medical Center
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Kister I, Curtin R, Pei J, Perdomo K, Bacon TE, Voloshyna I, Kim J, Tardio E, Velmurugu Y, Nyovanie S, Valeria Calderon A, Dibba F, Stanzin I, Samanovic MI, Raut P, Raposo C, Priest J, Cabatingan M, Winger RC, Mulligan MJ, Patskovsky Y, Silverman GJ, Krogsgaard M. Hybrid and vaccine-induced immunity against SAR-CoV-2 in MS patients on different disease-modifying therapies. Ann Clin Transl Neurol 2022; 9:1643-1659. [PMID: 36165097 PMCID: PMC9538694 DOI: 10.1002/acn3.51664] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/26/2022] [Accepted: 09/07/2022] [Indexed: 01/12/2023] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To compare "hybrid immunity" (prior COVID-19 infection plus vaccination) and post-vaccination immunity to SARS CoV-2 in MS patients on different disease-modifying therapies (DMTs) and to assess the impact of vaccine product and race/ethnicity on post-vaccination immune responses. METHODS Consecutive MS patients from NYU MS Care Center (New York, NY), aged 18-60, who completed primary COVID-19 vaccination series ≥6 weeks previously were evaluated for SARS CoV-2-specific antibody responses with electro-chemiluminescence and multiepitope bead-based immunoassays and, in a subset, live virus immunofluorescence-based microneutralization assay. SARS CoV-2-specific cellular responses were assessed with cellular stimulation TruCulture IFNγ and IL-2 assay and, in a subset, with IFNγ and IL-2 ELISpot assays. Multivariate analyses examined associations between immunologic responses and prior COVID-19 infection while controlling for age, sex, DMT at vaccination, time-to-vaccine, and vaccine product. RESULTS Between 6/01/2021 and 11/11/2021, 370 MS patients were recruited (mean age 40.6 years; 76% female; 53% non-White; 22% with prior infection; common DMT classes: ocrelizumab 40%; natalizumab 15%, sphingosine-1-phosphate receptor modulators 13%; and no DMT 8%). Vaccine-to-collection time was 18.7 (±7.7) weeks and 95% of patients received mRNA vaccines. In multivariate analyses, patients with laboratory-confirmed prior COVID-19 infection had significantly increased antibody and cellular post-vaccination responses compared to those without prior infection. Vaccine product and DMT class were independent predictors of antibody and cellular responses, while race/ethnicity was not. INTERPRETATION Prior COVID-19 infection is associated with enhanced antibody and cellular post-vaccine responses independent of DMT class and vaccine type. There were no differences in immune responses across race/ethnic groups.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ilya Kister
- NYU Multiple Sclerosis Comprehensive Care Center, Department of NeurologyNew York University Grossman School of MedicineNew YorkNew York10016USA
| | - Ryan Curtin
- Laura and Isaac Perlmutter Cancer Center and Department of PathologyNew York University Grossman School of MedicineNew YorkNew York10016USA
| | - Jinglan Pei
- Genentech, Inc.South San FranciscoCaliforniaUSA
| | - Katherine Perdomo
- NYU Multiple Sclerosis Comprehensive Care Center, Department of NeurologyNew York University Grossman School of MedicineNew YorkNew York10016USA
| | - Tamar E. Bacon
- NYU Multiple Sclerosis Comprehensive Care Center, Department of NeurologyNew York University Grossman School of MedicineNew YorkNew York10016USA
| | - Iryna Voloshyna
- Laura and Isaac Perlmutter Cancer Center and Department of PathologyNew York University Grossman School of MedicineNew YorkNew York10016USA
| | - Joseph Kim
- Laura and Isaac Perlmutter Cancer Center and Department of PathologyNew York University Grossman School of MedicineNew YorkNew York10016USA
| | - Ethan Tardio
- Laura and Isaac Perlmutter Cancer Center and Department of PathologyNew York University Grossman School of MedicineNew YorkNew York10016USA
| | - Yogambigai Velmurugu
- Laura and Isaac Perlmutter Cancer Center and Department of PathologyNew York University Grossman School of MedicineNew YorkNew York10016USA
| | - Samantha Nyovanie
- Laura and Isaac Perlmutter Cancer Center and Department of PathologyNew York University Grossman School of MedicineNew YorkNew York10016USA
| | - Andrea Valeria Calderon
- Laura and Isaac Perlmutter Cancer Center and Department of PathologyNew York University Grossman School of MedicineNew YorkNew York10016USA
| | - Fatoumatta Dibba
- Laura and Isaac Perlmutter Cancer Center and Department of PathologyNew York University Grossman School of MedicineNew YorkNew York10016USA
| | - Igda Stanzin
- Laura and Isaac Perlmutter Cancer Center and Department of PathologyNew York University Grossman School of MedicineNew YorkNew York10016USA
| | - Marie I. Samanovic
- NYU Langone Vaccine Center, Department of MedicineNYU Grossman School of MedicineNew YorkNew YorkUSA
| | - Pranil Raut
- Genentech, Inc.South San FranciscoCaliforniaUSA
| | | | | | | | | | - Mark J. Mulligan
- NYU Langone Vaccine Center, Department of MedicineNYU Grossman School of MedicineNew YorkNew YorkUSA
| | - Yury Patskovsky
- Laura and Isaac Perlmutter Cancer Center and Department of PathologyNew York University Grossman School of MedicineNew YorkNew York10016USA
| | - Gregg J. Silverman
- Division of Rheumatology, Department of MedicineNew York University Grossman School of MedicineNew YorkNew York10016USA
| | - Michelle Krogsgaard
- Laura and Isaac Perlmutter Cancer Center and Department of PathologyNew York University Grossman School of MedicineNew YorkNew York10016USA
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