1
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Albery GF, Bansal S, Silk MJ. Comparative approaches in social network ecology. Ecol Lett 2024; 27:e14345. [PMID: 38069575 DOI: 10.1111/ele.14345] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/03/2023] [Revised: 10/10/2023] [Accepted: 10/16/2023] [Indexed: 01/31/2024]
Abstract
Social systems vary enormously across the animal kingdom, with important implications for ecological and evolutionary processes such as infectious disease dynamics, anti-predator defence, and the evolution of cooperation. Comparing social network structures between species offers a promising route to help disentangle the ecological and evolutionary processes that shape this diversity. Comparative analyses of networks like these are challenging and have been used relatively little in ecology, but are becoming increasingly feasible as the number of empirical datasets expands. Here, we provide an overview of multispecies comparative social network studies in ecology and evolution. We identify a range of advancements that these studies have made and key challenges that they face, and we use these to guide methodological and empirical suggestions for future research. Overall, we hope to motivate wider publication and analysis of open social network datasets in animal ecology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gregory F Albery
- Department of Biology, Georgetown University, Washington, District of Columbia, USA
- Leibniz Institute of Freshwater Ecology and Inland Fisheries, Berlin, Germany
| | - Shweta Bansal
- Department of Biology, Georgetown University, Washington, District of Columbia, USA
| | - Matthew J Silk
- CEFE, Univ Montpellier, CNRS, EPHE, IRD, Montpellier, France
- Institute of Ecology and Evolution, School of Biological Sciences, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK
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2
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Yamaguchi E, Takagi M, Osaki M, Hayama Y, Yamamoto T. Sex-based differences in the distribution of Aujeszky's disease-seropositive Japanese wild boar. Porcine Health Manag 2023; 9:28. [PMID: 37312154 DOI: 10.1186/s40813-023-00323-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2023] [Accepted: 05/31/2023] [Indexed: 06/15/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Aujeszky's disease virus (ADV) primarily infects domestic pigs and wild boars, causing the abortion and death of young piglets due to central nervous system disorders. In Japan, the national eradication program for ADV in domestic pigs has been successful in most prefectures; however, concern has been raised regarding ADV-infected wild boars as a source of transmission to domestic pigs. RESULTS We assessed the nationwide seroprevalence of ADV among wild boars (Sus scrofa) in Japan. Moreover, we determined the sex-based differences in the spatial clustering of seropositive animals. Serum samples were obtained from a total of 1383 wild boars acquired by hunting in 41 prefectures in three fiscal years (April-March in 2014, 2015, and 2017). Seropositivity tests for ADV using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay, the latex agglutination and neutralization tests showed 29 boars seropositive for ADV (29/1383, 2.1% [95% confidence interval, CI: 1.4-3.0%]), with 28 of these boars originating from three prefectures in the Kii Peninsula (28/121, 23.1% [95% CI: 16.0-31.7%]). The degree of spatial clustering of these ADV-seropositive adult boars in the Kii Peninsula was evaluated using the K-function and data from sera samples of 46 (14 seropositive) male and 54 (12 seropositive) female boars. The degree of clustering among females was significantly higher in seropositive animals than in tested animals; however, such a difference was not observed for seropositive males. CONCLUSIONS The spatial dynamics of ADV among adult wild boars may be characterized based on sex, and is likely due to sex-based differences in behavioral patterns including dispersal among wild boars.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emi Yamaguchi
- Epidemiology Unit, Division of Transboundary Animal Disease Research, National Institute of Animal Health, National Agriculture and Food Research Organization, Kannondai 3-1-5, Tsukuba, 305-0856, Ibaraki, Japan
| | - Michihiro Takagi
- Biologicals Production Office, Department of Animal Disease Control and Prevention, National Institute of Animal Health, National Agriculture and Food Research Organization, Tsukuba, Japan
- Virus Group, Division of Infectious Animal Disease Research, National Institute of Animal Health, National Agriculture and Food Research Organization, Tsukuba, Japan
| | - Makoto Osaki
- Strategic Planning Headquarters, National Agriculture and Food Research Organization, Tsukuba, Japan
| | - Yoko Hayama
- Epidemiology Unit, Division of Transboundary Animal Disease Research, National Institute of Animal Health, National Agriculture and Food Research Organization, Kannondai 3-1-5, Tsukuba, 305-0856, Ibaraki, Japan
| | - Takehisa Yamamoto
- Epidemiology Unit, Division of Transboundary Animal Disease Research, National Institute of Animal Health, National Agriculture and Food Research Organization, Kannondai 3-1-5, Tsukuba, 305-0856, Ibaraki, Japan.
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3
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Hammami P, Widgren S, Grosbois V, Apolloni A, Rose N, Andraud M. Complex network analysis to understand trading partnership in French swine production. PLoS One 2022; 17:e0266457. [PMID: 35390068 PMCID: PMC8989331 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0266457] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/10/2021] [Accepted: 03/21/2022] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
The circulation of livestock pathogens in the pig industry is strongly related to animal movements. Epidemiological models developed to understand the circulation of pathogens within the industry should include the probability of transmission via between-farm contacts. The pig industry presents a structured network in time and space, whose composition changes over time. Therefore, to improve the predictive capabilities of epidemiological models, it is important to identify the drivers of farmers’ choices in terms of trade partnerships. Combining complex network analysis approaches and exponential random graph models, this study aims to analyze patterns of the swine industry network and identify key factors responsible for between-farm contacts at the French scale. The analysis confirms the topological stability of the network over time while highlighting the important roles of companies, types of farm, farm sizes, outdoor housing systems and batch-rearing systems. Both approaches revealed to be complementary and very effective to understand the drivers of the network. Results of this study are promising for future developments of epidemiological models for livestock diseases. This study is part of the One Health European Joint Programme: BIOPIGEE.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pachka Hammami
- Anses Ploufragan-Plouzané-Niort Laboratory / Epidemiology, Health and Welfare Research Unit (EpiSaBE), French Agency for Food, Environmental and Occupational Health & Safety, Ploufragan, France
| | - Stefan Widgren
- Department of Disease Control and Epidemiology, National Veterinary Institute, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Vladimir Grosbois
- Animal, Health, Territories, Risks, Ecosystems, Research Unit (ASTRE)/Agricultural Research for Development/Campus de Baillarguet, Cirad, Montpellier, France
- Animal, Health, Territories, Risks, Ecosystems, Research Unit (ASTRE), Univ. Montpellier, Montpellier, France
- Animal, Health, Territories, Risks, Ecosystems, Research Unit (ASTRE)/French National Institute for Agricultural Research/Campus de Baillarguet, INRAE, Montpellier, France
| | - Andrea Apolloni
- Animal, Health, Territories, Risks, Ecosystems, Research Unit (ASTRE)/Agricultural Research for Development/Campus de Baillarguet, Cirad, Montpellier, France
- Animal, Health, Territories, Risks, Ecosystems, Research Unit (ASTRE), Univ. Montpellier, Montpellier, France
- Animal, Health, Territories, Risks, Ecosystems, Research Unit (ASTRE)/French National Institute for Agricultural Research/Campus de Baillarguet, INRAE, Montpellier, France
| | - Nicolas Rose
- Anses Ploufragan-Plouzané-Niort Laboratory / Epidemiology, Health and Welfare Research Unit (EpiSaBE), French Agency for Food, Environmental and Occupational Health & Safety, Ploufragan, France
| | - Mathieu Andraud
- Anses Ploufragan-Plouzané-Niort Laboratory / Epidemiology, Health and Welfare Research Unit (EpiSaBE), French Agency for Food, Environmental and Occupational Health & Safety, Ploufragan, France
- * E-mail:
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4
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Hunting alters viral transmission and evolution in a large carnivore. Nat Ecol Evol 2022; 6:174-182. [PMID: 35087217 PMCID: PMC10111630 DOI: 10.1038/s41559-021-01635-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/04/2021] [Accepted: 11/24/2021] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Hunting can fundamentally alter wildlife population dynamics but the consequences of hunting on pathogen transmission and evolution remain poorly understood. Here, we present a study that leverages a unique landscape-scale quasi-experiment coupled with pathogen-transmission tracing, network simulation and phylodynamics to provide insights into how hunting shapes feline immunodeficiency virus (FIV) dynamics in puma (Puma concolor). We show that removing hunting pressure enhances the role of males in transmission, increases the viral population growth rate and increases the role of evolutionary forces on the pathogen compared to when hunting was reinstated. Changes in transmission observed with the removal of hunting could be linked to short-term social changes while the male puma population increased. These findings are supported through comparison with a region with stable hunting management over the same time period. This study shows that routine wildlife management can have impacts on pathogen transmission and evolution not previously considered.
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5
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Marjamäki PH, Dugdale HL, Delahay R, McDonald RA, Wilson AJ. Genetic, social and maternal contributions to Mycobacterium bovis infection status in European badgers (Meles meles). J Evol Biol 2021; 34:695-709. [PMID: 33617698 DOI: 10.1111/jeb.13775] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/05/2020] [Revised: 02/14/2021] [Accepted: 02/16/2021] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Within host populations, individuals can vary in their susceptibility to infections and in the severity and progression of disease once infected. Though mediated through differences in behaviour, resistance or tolerance, variation in disease outcomes ultimately stems from genetic and environmental (including social) factors. Despite obvious implications for the evolutionary, ecological and epidemiological dynamics of disease traits, the relative importance of these factors has rarely been quantified in naturally infected wild animal hosts. Here, we use a long-term capture-mark-recapture study of group-living European badgers (Meles meles) to characterize genetic and environmental sources of variation in host infection status by Mycobacterium bovis, the causative agent of bovine tuberculosis (bTB). We find that genetic factors contribute to M. bovis infection status, whether measured over a lifetime or across repeated captures. In the latter case, the heritability (h2 ) of infection status is close to zero in cubs and yearlings but increases in adulthood. Overall, environmental influences arising from a combination of social group membership (defined in time and space) and maternal effects appear to be more important than genetic factors. Thus, while genes do contribute to among-individual variation, they play a comparatively minor role, meaning that rapid evolution of host defences under parasite-mediated selection is unlikely (especially if selection is on young animals where h2 is lowest). Conversely, our results lend further support to the view that social and early-life environments are important drivers of the dynamics of bTB infection in badger populations specifically, and of disease traits in wild hosts more generally.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paula H Marjamäki
- Centre for Ecology and Conservation, University of Exeter, Penryn Campus, Penryn, Cornwall, UK
| | - Hannah L Dugdale
- Groningen Institute of Evolutionary Life Sciences, University of Groningen, Nijenborgh, The Netherlands
| | - Richard Delahay
- National Wildlife Management Centre, Animal and Plant Health Agency, Gloucestershire, UK
| | - Robbie A McDonald
- Environment and Sustainability Institute, University of Exeter, Penryn, Cornwall, UK
| | - Alastair J Wilson
- Centre for Ecology and Conservation, University of Exeter, Penryn Campus, Penryn, Cornwall, UK
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6
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Hawley DM, Gibson AK, Townsend AK, Craft ME, Stephenson JF. Bidirectional interactions between host social behaviour and parasites arise through ecological and evolutionary processes. Parasitology 2021; 148:274-288. [PMID: 33092680 PMCID: PMC11010184 DOI: 10.1017/s0031182020002048] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2020] [Revised: 10/14/2020] [Accepted: 10/15/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
An animal's social behaviour both influences and changes in response to its parasites. Here we consider these bidirectional links between host social behaviours and parasite infection, both those that occur from ecological vs evolutionary processes. First, we review how social behaviours of individuals and groups influence ecological patterns of parasite transmission. We then discuss how parasite infection, in turn, can alter host social interactions by changing the behaviour of both infected and uninfected individuals. Together, these ecological feedbacks between social behaviour and parasite infection can result in important epidemiological consequences. Next, we consider the ways in which host social behaviours evolve in response to parasites, highlighting constraints that arise from the need for hosts to maintain benefits of sociality while minimizing fitness costs of parasites. Finally, we consider how host social behaviours shape the population genetic structure of parasites and the evolution of key parasite traits, such as virulence. Overall, these bidirectional relationships between host social behaviours and parasites are an important yet often underappreciated component of population-level disease dynamics and host-parasite coevolution.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dana M. Hawley
- Department of Biological Sciences, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA24061, USA
| | - Amanda K. Gibson
- Department of Biology, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA22903, USA
| | | | - Meggan E. Craft
- Department of Veterinary Population Medicine and Department of Ecology, Evolution and Behavior, University of Minnesota, St Paul, MN55108, USA
| | - Jessica F. Stephenson
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA15260, USA
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7
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The role of social structure and dynamics in the maintenance of endemic disease. Behav Ecol Sociobiol 2021; 75:122. [PMID: 34421183 PMCID: PMC8370858 DOI: 10.1007/s00265-021-03055-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2021] [Revised: 07/09/2021] [Accepted: 07/13/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Social interactions are required for the direct transmission of infectious diseases. Consequently, the social network structure of populations plays a key role in shaping infectious disease dynamics. A huge research effort has examined how specific social network structures make populations more (or less) vulnerable to damaging epidemics. However, it can be just as important to understand how social networks can contribute to endemic disease dynamics, in which pathogens are maintained at stable levels for prolonged periods of time. Hosts that can maintain endemic disease may serve as keystone hosts for multi-host pathogens within an ecological community, and also have greater potential to act as key wildlife reservoirs of agricultural and zoonotic diseases. Here, we examine combinations of social and demographic processes that can foster endemic disease in hosts. We synthesise theoretical and empirical work to demonstrate the importance of both social structure and social dynamics in maintaining endemic disease. We also highlight the importance of distinguishing between the local and global persistence of infection and reveal how different social processes drive variation in the scale at which infectious diseases appear endemic. Our synthesis provides a framework by which to understand how sociality contributes to the long-term maintenance of infectious disease in wildlife hosts and provides a set of tools to unpick the social and demographic mechanisms involved in any given host-pathogen system. SUPPLEMENTARY INFORMATION The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s00265-021-03055-8.
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8
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Albery GF, Newman C, Ross JB, MacDonald DW, Bansal S, Buesching C. Negative density-dependent parasitism in a group-living carnivore. Proc Biol Sci 2020; 287:20202655. [PMID: 33323092 PMCID: PMC7779509 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2020.2655] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/22/2020] [Accepted: 11/23/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Animals living at high population densities commonly experience greater exposure to disease, leading to increased parasite burdens. However, social animals can benefit immunologically and hygienically from cooperation, and individuals may alter their socio-spatial behaviour in response to infection, both of which could counteract density-related increases in exposure. Consequently, the costs and benefits of sociality for disease are often uncertain. Here, we use a long-term study of a wild European badger population (Meles meles) to investigate how within-population variation in host density determines infection with multiple parasites. Four out of five parasite taxa exhibited consistent spatial hotspots of infection, which peaked among badgers living in areas of low local population density. Combined movement, survival, spatial and social network analyses revealed that parasite avoidance was the likely cause of this negative density dependence, with possible roles for localized mortality, encounter-dilution effects, and micronutrient-enhanced immunity. These findings demonstrate that animals can organize their societies in space to minimize parasite infection, with important implications for badger behavioural ecology and for the control of badger-associated diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Chris Newman
- Wildlife Conservation Research Unit, The Recanati-Kaplan Centre, Department of Zoology, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
| | - Julius Bright Ross
- Wildlife Conservation Research Unit, The Recanati-Kaplan Centre, Department of Zoology, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
| | - David W. MacDonald
- Wildlife Conservation Research Unit, The Recanati-Kaplan Centre, Department of Zoology, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
| | - Shweta Bansal
- Department of Biology, Georgetown University, Washington, DC, USA
| | - Christina Buesching
- Wildlife Conservation Research Unit, The Recanati-Kaplan Centre, Department of Zoology, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
- Irving K. Barber Faculty of Sciences, Okanagan Department of Biology, The University of British Columbia, Kelowna, British Columbia, Canada
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9
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Kinsley AC, Rossi G, Silk MJ, VanderWaal K. Multilayer and Multiplex Networks: An Introduction to Their Use in Veterinary Epidemiology. Front Vet Sci 2020; 7:596. [PMID: 33088828 PMCID: PMC7500177 DOI: 10.3389/fvets.2020.00596] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/03/2019] [Accepted: 07/27/2020] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Contact network analysis has become a vital tool for conceptualizing the spread of pathogens in animal populations and is particularly useful for understanding the implications of heterogeneity in contact patterns for transmission. However, the transmission of most pathogens cannot be simplified to a single mode of transmission and, thus, a single definition of contact. In addition, host-pathogen interactions occur in a community context, with many pathogens infecting multiple host species and most hosts being infected by multiple pathogens. Multilayer networks provide a formal framework for researching host-pathogen systems in which multiple types of transmission-relevant interactions, defined as network layers, can be analyzed jointly. Here, we provide an overview of multilayer network analysis and review applications of this novel method to epidemiological research questions. We then demonstrate the use of this technique to analyze heterogeneity in direct and indirect contact patterns amongst swine farms in the United States. When contact among nodes can be defined in multiple ways, a multilayer approach can advance our ability to use networks in epidemiological research by providing an improved approach for defining epidemiologically relevant groups of interacting nodes and changing the way we identify epidemiologically important individuals such as superspreaders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amy C Kinsley
- Department of Veterinary Population Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Minnesota, St. Paul, MN, United States
| | - Gianluigi Rossi
- Roslin Institute and Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Sciences, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
| | - Matthew J Silk
- Centre for Ecology and Conservation, University of Exeter Penryn Campus, Penryn, United Kingdom.,Environment and Sustainability Institute, University of Exeter, Penryn, United Kingdom
| | - Kimberly VanderWaal
- Department of Veterinary Population Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Minnesota, St. Paul, MN, United States
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10
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Evans JC, Silk MJ, Boogert NJ, Hodgson DJ. Infected or informed? Social structure and the simultaneous transmission of information and infectious disease. OIKOS 2020. [DOI: 10.1111/oik.07148] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Julian C. Evans
- Dept of Evolutionary Biology and Environmental Studies, Univ. of Zurich Switzerland
| | - Matthew J. Silk
- Centre for Ecology and Conservation, Univ. of Exeter Penryn Campus UK
- Environment and Sustainability Inst., Univ. of Exeter Penryn Campus UK
| | | | - David J. Hodgson
- Centre for Ecology and Conservation, Univ. of Exeter Penryn Campus UK
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11
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Ghafouri S, Khasteh SH. A survey on exponential random graph models: an application perspective. PeerJ Comput Sci 2020; 6:e269. [PMID: 33816920 PMCID: PMC7924687 DOI: 10.7717/peerj-cs.269] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/25/2019] [Accepted: 03/08/2020] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
The uncertainty underlying real-world phenomena has attracted attention toward statistical analysis approaches. In this regard, many problems can be modeled as networks. Thus, the statistical analysis of networked problems has received special attention from many researchers in recent years. Exponential Random Graph Models, known as ERGMs, are one of the popular statistical methods for analyzing the graphs of networked data. ERGM is a generative statistical network model whose ultimate goal is to present a subset of networks with particular characteristics as a statistical distribution. In the context of ERGMs, these graph's characteristics are called statistics or configurations. Most of the time they are the number of repeated subgraphs across the graphs. Some examples include the number of triangles or the number of cycle of an arbitrary length. Also, any other census of the graph, as with the edge density, can be considered as one of the graph's statistics. In this review paper, after explaining the building blocks and classic methods of ERGMs, we have reviewed their newly presented approaches and research papers. Further, we have conducted a comprehensive study on the applications of ERGMs in many research areas which to the best of our knowledge has not been done before. This review paper can be used as an introduction for scientists from various disciplines whose aim is to use ERGMs in some networked data in their field of expertise.
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Affiliation(s)
- Saeid Ghafouri
- School of computer engineering, K. N. Toosi University of Technology, Tehran, Iran
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12
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Leu ST, Sah P, Krzyszczyk E, Jacoby AM, Mann J, Bansal S. Sex, synchrony, and skin contact: integrating multiple behaviors to assess pathogen transmission risk. Behav Ecol 2020. [DOI: 10.1093/beheco/araa002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Abstract
Direct pathogen and parasite transmission is fundamentally driven by a population’s contact network structure and its demographic composition and is further modulated by pathogen life-history traits. Importantly, populations are most often concurrently exposed to a suite of pathogens, which is rarely investigated, because contact networks are typically inferred from spatial proximity only. Here, we use 5 years of detailed observations of Indo-Pacific bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops aduncus) that distinguish between four different types of social contact. We investigate how demography (sex and age) affects these different social behaviors. Three of the four social behaviors can be used as a proxy for understanding key routes of direct pathogen transmission (sexual contact, skin contact, and aerosol contact of respiratory vapor above the water surface). We quantify the demography-dependent network connectedness, representing the risk of exposure associated with the three pathogen transmission routes, and quantify coexposure risks and relate them to individual sociability. Our results suggest demography-driven disease risk in bottlenose dolphins, with males at greater risk than females, and transmission route-dependent implications for different age classes. We hypothesize that male alliance formation and the divergent reproductive strategies in males and females drive the demography-dependent connectedness and, hence, exposure risk to pathogens. Our study provides evidence for the risk of coexposure to pathogens transmitted along different transmission routes and that they relate to individual sociability. Hence, our results highlight the importance of a multibehavioral approach for a more complete understanding of the overall pathogen transmission risk in animal populations, as well as the cumulative costs of sociality.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephan T Leu
- Department of Biology, Georgetown University, Washington, DC, USA
| | - Pratha Sah
- Department of Biology, Georgetown University, Washington, DC, USA
| | - Ewa Krzyszczyk
- Department of Biology, Georgetown University, Washington, DC, USA
| | - Ann-Marie Jacoby
- Department of Biology, Georgetown University, Washington, DC, USA
| | - Janet Mann
- Department of Biology, Georgetown University, Washington, DC, USA
| | - Shweta Bansal
- Department of Biology, Georgetown University, Washington, DC, USA
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13
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Gaughran A, MacWhite T, Mullen E, Maher P, Kelly DJ, Good M, Marples NM. Dispersal patterns in a medium-density Irish badger population: Implications for understanding the dynamics of tuberculosis transmission. Ecol Evol 2019; 9:13142-13152. [PMID: 31871635 PMCID: PMC6912907 DOI: 10.1002/ece3.5753] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/19/2019] [Revised: 07/26/2019] [Accepted: 09/15/2019] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
European badgers (Meles meles) are group-living mustelids implicated in the spread of bovine tuberculosis (TB) to cattle and act as a wildlife reservoir for the disease. In badgers, only a minority of individuals disperse from their natal social group. However, dispersal may be extremely important for the spread of TB, as dispersers could act as hubs for disease transmission. We monitored a population of 139 wild badgers over 7 years in a medium-density population (1.8 individuals/km2). GPS tracking collars were applied to 80 different individuals. Of these, we identified 25 dispersers, 14 of which were wearing collars as they dispersed. This allowed us to record the process of dispersal in much greater detail than ever before. We show that dispersal is an extremely complex process, and measurements of straight-line distance between old and new social groups can severely underestimate how far dispersers travel. Assumptions of straight-line travel can also underestimate direct and indirect interactions and the potential for disease transmission. For example, one female disperser which eventually settled 1.5 km from her natal territory traveled 308 km and passed through 22 different territories during dispersal. Knowledge of badgers' ranging behavior during dispersal is crucial to understanding the dynamics of TB transmission, and for designing appropriate interventions, such as vaccination.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aoibheann Gaughran
- Department of ZoologySchool of Natural SciencesTrinity College DublinDublinIreland
- Trinity Centre for Biodiversity ResearchTrinity College DublinDublinIreland
| | | | - Enda Mullen
- Department of Culture, Heritage and the GaeltachtNational Parks and Wildlife ServiceDublinIreland
| | - Peter Maher
- Department of Agriculture, Food and the MarineDublinIreland
| | - David J. Kelly
- Department of ZoologySchool of Natural SciencesTrinity College DublinDublinIreland
- Trinity Centre for Biodiversity ResearchTrinity College DublinDublinIreland
| | - Margaret Good
- Department of ZoologySchool of Natural SciencesTrinity College DublinDublinIreland
- Trinity Centre for Biodiversity ResearchTrinity College DublinDublinIreland
| | - Nicola M. Marples
- Department of ZoologySchool of Natural SciencesTrinity College DublinDublinIreland
- Trinity Centre for Biodiversity ResearchTrinity College DublinDublinIreland
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14
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Stephenson JF. Parasite-induced plasticity in host social behaviour depends on sex and susceptibility. Biol Lett 2019; 15:20190557. [PMID: 31744410 DOI: 10.1098/rsbl.2019.0557] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Understanding the effects of parasites on host behaviour, of host behaviour on parasite infection, and the reciprocal interactions between these processes is vital to improving our understanding of animal behaviour and disease dynamics. However, behaviour and parasite infection are both highly variable within and between individual hosts, and how this variation affects behaviour-parasite feedbacks is poorly understood. For example, it is unclear how an individual's behaviour before infection might change once it becomes infected, or as the infection progresses, and how these changes depend on the host's parasite susceptibility. Here, using the guppy, Poecilia reticulata, and a directly transmitted ectoparasite, Gyrodactylus turnbulli, I show that parasite-induced behavioural plasticity depends on host sex and susceptibility. Among females, time spent shoaling (sociality), a behaviour that increases parasite transmission, did not depend on infection status (infected/not) or susceptibility. By contrast, male sociality in the absence of infection was negatively correlated with susceptibility, suggesting that the most susceptible males use behaviour to avoid infection. However, in late infection, when parasite transmission is most likely, male sociality and susceptibility became positively correlated, suggesting that susceptible males modify their behaviour upon infection potentially to increase transmission and mating opportunities. I discuss the implications of these patterns for disease dynamics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jessica F Stephenson
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA 15260, USA.,Department of Aquatic Ecology, EAWAG, Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and Technology, 8600 Dübendorf, Switzerland.,Center for Adaptation to a Changing Environment, ETH Zürich, 8092 Zürich, Switzerland
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15
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Mysterud A, Madslien K, Viljugrein H, Vikøren T, Andersen R, Güere ME, Benestad SL, Hopp P, Strand O, Ytrehus B, Røed KH, Rolandsen CM, Våge J. The demographic pattern of infection with chronic wasting disease in reindeer at an early epidemic stage. Ecosphere 2019. [DOI: 10.1002/ecs2.2931] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Atle Mysterud
- Centre for Ecological and Evolutionary Synthesis (CEES) Department of Biosciences University of Oslo NO‐0316 P.O. Box 1066 Blindern Oslo Norway
| | - Knut Madslien
- Norwegian Veterinary Institute NO‐0106 P.O. Box 750 Sentrum Oslo Norway
| | | | - Turid Vikøren
- Norwegian Veterinary Institute NO‐0106 P.O. Box 750 Sentrum Oslo Norway
| | - Roy Andersen
- Norwegian Institute for Nature Research (NINA) NO‐7485 P. O. Box 5685 Torgarden Trondheim Norway
| | - Mariella Evelyn Güere
- Department of Basic Sciences and Aquatic Medicine Norwegian University of Life Sciences NO‐0102 P.O. Box 369 Sentrum Oslo Norway
| | | | - Petter Hopp
- Norwegian Veterinary Institute NO‐0106 P.O. Box 750 Sentrum Oslo Norway
| | - Olav Strand
- Norwegian Institute for Nature Research (NINA) NO‐7485 P. O. Box 5685 Torgarden Trondheim Norway
| | - Bjørnar Ytrehus
- Norwegian Institute for Nature Research (NINA) NO‐7485 P. O. Box 5685 Torgarden Trondheim Norway
| | - Knut H. Røed
- Department of Basic Sciences and Aquatic Medicine Norwegian University of Life Sciences NO‐0102 P.O. Box 369 Sentrum Oslo Norway
| | - Christer M. Rolandsen
- Norwegian Institute for Nature Research (NINA) NO‐7485 P. O. Box 5685 Torgarden Trondheim Norway
| | - Jørn Våge
- Norwegian Veterinary Institute NO‐0106 P.O. Box 750 Sentrum Oslo Norway
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16
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Wu Q, Richard M, Rutschmann A, Miles DB, Clobert J. Environmental variation mediates the prevalence and co-occurrence of parasites in the common lizard, Zootoca vivipara. BMC Ecol 2019; 19:44. [PMID: 31640667 PMCID: PMC6806499 DOI: 10.1186/s12898-019-0259-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/13/2019] [Accepted: 10/10/2019] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Hosts and their parasites are under reciprocal selection, leading to coevolution. However, parasites depend not only on a host, but also on the host’s environment. In addition, a single host species is rarely infested by a single species of parasite and often supports multiple species (i.e., multi-infestation). Although the arms race between a parasite and its host has been well studied, few data are available on how environmental conditions may influence the process leading to multiple infestations. In this study, we examine whether: (1) environmental factors including altitude, temperature, vegetation cover, human disturbance, and grazing by livestock affect the prevalence of two types of ectoparasites, mites and ticks, on their host (the common lizard, Zootoca vivipara) and (2) competition is evident between mites and ticks. Results We found the probability of mite infestation increased with altitude and vegetation cover, but decreased with human disturbance and presence of livestock. In contrast, the probability of tick infestation was inversely associated with the same factors. Individuals with low body condition and males had higher mite loads. However, this pattern was not evident for tick loads. The results from a structural equation model revealed that mites and ticks indirectly and negatively affected each other’s infestation probability through an interaction involving the environmental context. We detected a direct negative association between mites and ticks only when considering estimates of parasite load. This suggests that both mites and ticks could attach to the same host, but once they start to accumulate, only one of them takes advantage. Conclusion The environment of hosts has a strong effect on infestation probabilities and parasite loads of mites and ticks. Autecological differences between mites and ticks, as indicated by their opposing patterns along environmental gradients, may explain the pattern of weak contemporary interspecific competition. Our findings emphasize the importance of including environmental factors and the natural history of each parasite species in studies of host–parasite coevolution.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qiang Wu
- CNRS, Station d'Ecologie Théorique et Expérimentale, UMR 5321 and Université Toulouse III-Paul Sabatier, 09200, Moulis, France.,Université Fédérale Toulouse Midi-Pyrénées, 31013, Toulouse, France
| | - Murielle Richard
- CNRS, Station d'Ecologie Théorique et Expérimentale, UMR 5321 and Université Toulouse III-Paul Sabatier, 09200, Moulis, France.
| | - Alexis Rutschmann
- CNRS, Station d'Ecologie Théorique et Expérimentale, UMR 5321 and Université Toulouse III-Paul Sabatier, 09200, Moulis, France.,Université Fédérale Toulouse Midi-Pyrénées, 31013, Toulouse, France.,School of Biological Sciences, University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Donald B Miles
- CNRS, Station d'Ecologie Théorique et Expérimentale, UMR 5321 and Université Toulouse III-Paul Sabatier, 09200, Moulis, France.,Department of Biological Sciences, Ohio University, 131 Life Sciences Building, Athens, OH, 45701, USA
| | - Jean Clobert
- CNRS, Station d'Ecologie Théorique et Expérimentale, UMR 5321 and Université Toulouse III-Paul Sabatier, 09200, Moulis, France
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17
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Siva-Jothy JA, Vale PF. Viral infection causes sex-specific changes in fruit fly social aggregation behaviour. Biol Lett 2019; 15:20190344. [PMID: 31530113 DOI: 10.1098/rsbl.2019.0344] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Host behavioural changes following infection are common and could be important determinants of host behavioural competence to transmit pathogens. Identifying potential sources of variation in sickness behaviours is therefore central to our understanding of disease transmission. Here, we test how group social aggregation and individual locomotor activity vary between different genotypes of male and female fruit flies (Drosophila melanogaster) following septic infection with Drosophila C virus (DCV). We find genetic-based variation in both locomotor activity and social aggregation, but we did not detect an effect of DCV infection on fly activity or sleep patterns within the initial days following infection. However, DCV infection caused sex-specific effects on social aggregation, as male flies in most genetic backgrounds increased the distance to their nearest neighbour when infected. We discuss possible causes for these differences in the context of individual variation in immunity and their potential consequences for disease transmission.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jonathon A Siva-Jothy
- Institute of Evolutionary Biology, School of Biological Sciences, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH9 3FL, UK
| | - Pedro F Vale
- Institute of Evolutionary Biology, School of Biological Sciences, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH9 3FL, UK.,Centre for Immunity, Infection and Evolution, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH9 3FL, UK
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18
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Silk MJ, Hodgson DJ, Rozins C, Croft DP, Delahay RJ, Boots M, McDonald RA. Integrating social behaviour, demography and disease dynamics in network models: applications to disease management in declining wildlife populations. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 2019; 374:20180211. [PMID: 31352885 PMCID: PMC6710568 DOI: 10.1098/rstb.2018.0211] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 03/13/2019] [Indexed: 02/03/2023] Open
Abstract
The emergence and spread of infections can contribute to the decline and extinction of populations, particularly in conjunction with anthropogenic environmental change. The importance of heterogeneity in processes of transmission, resistance and tolerance is increasingly well understood in theory, but empirical studies that consider both the demographic and behavioural implications of infection are scarce. Non-random mixing of host individuals can impact the demographic thresholds that determine the amplification or attenuation of disease prevalence. Risk assessment and management of disease in threatened wildlife populations must therefore consider not just host density, but also the social structure of host populations. Here we integrate the most recent developments in epidemiological research from a demographic and social network perspective, and synthesize the latest developments in social network modelling for wildlife disease, to explore their applications to disease management in populations in decline and at risk of extinction. We use simulated examples to support our key points and reveal how disease-management strategies can and should exploit both behavioural and demographic information to prevent or control the spread of disease. Our synthesis highlights the importance of considering the combined impacts of demographic and behavioural processes in epidemics to successful disease management in a conservation context. This article is part of the theme issue 'Linking behaviour to dynamics of populations and communities: application of novel approaches in behavioural ecology to conservation'.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthew J. Silk
- Centre for Ecology and Conservation, University of Exeter, Penryn Campus, Penryn, UK
- Environment and Sustainability Institute, University of Exeter, Penryn Campus, Penryn, UK
| | - David J. Hodgson
- Centre for Ecology and Conservation, University of Exeter, Penryn Campus, Penryn, UK
| | - Carly Rozins
- Centre for Ecology and Conservation, University of Exeter, Penryn Campus, Penryn, UK
- Department of Integrative Biology, University of California Berkeley, Berkeley, CA, USA
| | - Darren P. Croft
- Centre for Research in Animal Behaviour, University of Exeter, Exeter, UK
| | - Richard J. Delahay
- National Wildlife Management Centre, Animal and Plant Health Agency, Nympsfield, UK
| | - Mike Boots
- Centre for Ecology and Conservation, University of Exeter, Penryn Campus, Penryn, UK
- Department of Integrative Biology, University of California Berkeley, Berkeley, CA, USA
| | - Robbie A. McDonald
- Environment and Sustainability Institute, University of Exeter, Penryn Campus, Penryn, UK
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19
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Herrera J, Nunn CL. Behavioural ecology and infectious disease: implications for conservation of biodiversity. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 2019; 374:20180054. [PMID: 31352881 DOI: 10.1098/rstb.2018.0054] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Behaviour underpins interactions among conspecifics and between species, with consequences for the transmission of disease-causing parasites. Because many parasites lead to declines in population size and increased risk of extinction for threatened species, understanding the link between host behaviour and disease transmission is particularly important for conservation management. Here, we consider the intersection of behaviour, ecology and parasite transmission, broadly encompassing micro- and macroparasites. We focus on behaviours that have direct impacts on transmission, as well as the behaviours that result from infection. Given the important role of parasites in host survival and reproduction, the effects of behaviour on parasitism can scale up to population-level processes, thus affecting species conservation. Understanding how conservation and infectious disease control strategies actually affect transmission potential can therefore often only be understood through a behavioural lens. We highlight how behavioural perspectives of disease ecology apply to conservation by reviewing the different ways that behavioural ecology influences parasite transmission and conservation goals. This article is part of the theme issue 'Linking behaviour to dynamics of populations and communities: application of novel approaches in behavioural ecology to conservation'.
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Affiliation(s)
- James Herrera
- Department of Evolutionary Anthropology, Duke University, 103 Science Drive, Durham, NC 27705, USA
| | - Charles L Nunn
- Department of Evolutionary Anthropology, Duke University, 103 Science Drive, Durham, NC 27705, USA.,Duke Global Health Institute, Duke University, 103 Science Drive, Durham, NC 27705, USA
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20
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Hamilton DG, Jones ME, Cameron EZ, McCallum H, Storfer A, Hohenlohe PA, Hamede RK. Rate of intersexual interactions affects injury likelihood in Tasmanian devil contact networks. Behav Ecol 2019. [DOI: 10.1093/beheco/arz054] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Abstract
Identifying the types of contacts that result in disease transmission is important for accurately modeling and predicting transmission dynamics and disease spread in wild populations. We investigated contacts within a population of adult Tasmanian devils (Sarcophilus harrisii) over a 6-month period and tested whether individual-level contact patterns were correlated with accumulation of bite wounds. Bite wounds are important in the spread of devil facial tumor disease, a clonal cancer cell line transmitted through direct inoculation of tumor cells when susceptible and infected individuals bite each other. We used multimodel inference and network autocorrelation models to investigate the effects of individual-level contact patterns, identities of interacting partners, and position within the social network on the propensity to be involved in bite-inducing contacts. We found that males were more likely to receive potentially disease-transmitting bite wounds than females, particularly during the mating season when males spend extended periods mate-guarding females. The number of bite wounds individuals received during the mating season was unrelated to any of the network metrics examined. Our approach illustrates the necessity for understanding which contact types spread disease in different systems to assist the management of this and other infectious wildlife diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- David G Hamilton
- School of Natural Sciences, University of Tasmania, Hobart, Tasmania Australia
| | - Menna E Jones
- School of Natural Sciences, University of Tasmania, Hobart, Tasmania Australia
| | - Elissa Z Cameron
- School of Natural Sciences, University of Tasmania, Hobart, Tasmania Australia
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Canterbury, Christchurch, New Zealand
| | - Hamish McCallum
- Environmental Futures Research Institute, Griffith University, Nathan, Queensland Australia
| | - Andrew Storfer
- School of Biological Sciences, Washington State University, Pullman, Washington, USA
| | - Paul A Hohenlohe
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Idaho, Moscow, Idaho, USA
| | - Rodrigo K Hamede
- School of Natural Sciences, University of Tasmania, Hobart, Tasmania Australia
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21
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Abstract
Network analysis has driven key developments in research on animal behaviour by providing quantitative methods to study the social structures of animal groups and populations. A recent formalism, known as multilayer network analysis, has advanced the study of multifaceted networked systems in many disciplines. It offers novel ways to study and quantify animal behaviour through connected 'layers' of interactions. In this article, we review common questions in animal behaviour that can be studied using a multilayer approach, and we link these questions to specific analyses. We outline the types of behavioural data and questions that may be suitable to study using multilayer network analysis. We detail several multilayer methods, which can provide new insights into questions about animal sociality at individual, group, population and evolutionary levels of organization. We give examples for how to implement multilayer methods to demonstrate how taking a multilayer approach can alter inferences about social structure and the positions of individuals within such a structure. Finally, we discuss caveats to undertaking multilayer network analysis in the study of animal social networks, and we call attention to methodological challenges for the application of these approaches. Our aim is to instigate the study of new questions about animal sociality using the new toolbox of multilayer network analysis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kelly R. Finn
- Animal Behavior Graduate Group, University of California, Davis, U.S.A
| | - Matthew J. Silk
- Environment and Sustainability Institute, University of Exeter, U.K
| | - Mason A. Porter
- Department of Mathematics, University of California, Los Angeles, U.S.A
| | - Noa Pinter-Wollman
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of California, Los Angeles, U.S.A
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22
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Webber QM, Vander Wal E. Trends and perspectives on the use of animal social network analysis in behavioural ecology: a bibliometric approach. Anim Behav 2019. [DOI: 10.1016/j.anbehav.2019.01.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
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23
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Lambert S, Gilot-Fromont E, Freycon P, Thébault A, Game Y, Toïgo C, Petit E, Barthe MN, Reynaud G, Jaÿ M, Garin-Bastuji B, Ponsart C, Hars J, Rossi S. High Shedding Potential and Significant Individual Heterogeneity in Naturally-Infected Alpine ibex ( Capra ibex) With Brucella melitensis. Front Microbiol 2018; 9:1065. [PMID: 29892274 PMCID: PMC5985404 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2018.01065] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/09/2018] [Accepted: 05/04/2018] [Indexed: 01/23/2023] Open
Abstract
Wildlife reservoirs of infectious diseases raise major management issues. In Europe, brucellosis has been eradicated in domestic ruminants from most countries and wild ruminants have not been considered important reservoirs so far. However, a high prevalence of Brucella melitensis infection has been recently identified in a French population of Alpine ibex (Capra ibex), after the emergence of brucellosis was confirmed in a dairy cattle farm and two human cases. This situation raised the need to identify the factors driving the persistence of Brucella infection at high prevalence levels in this ibex population. In the present paper, we studied the shedding pattern of B. melitensis in ibex from Bargy Massif, French Alps. Bacteriological examinations (1-15 tissues/samples per individual) were performed on 88 seropositive, supposedly infected and euthanized individuals. Among them, 51 (58%) showed at least one positive culture, including 45 ibex with at least one Brucella isolation from a urogenital sample or a lymph node in the pelvic area (active infection in organs in the pelvic area). Among these 45 ibex, 26 (30% of the total number of necropsied animals) showed at least one positive culture for a urogenital organ and were considered as being at risk of shedding the bacteria at the time of capture. We observed significant heterogeneity between sex-and-age classes: seropositive females were most at risk to excrete Brucella before the age of 5 years, possibly corresponding to abortion during the first pregnancy following infection such as reported in the domestic ruminants. The high shedding potential observed in young females may have contributed to the self-sustained maintenance of infection in this population, whereas males are supposed to play a role of transmission between spatial units through venereal transmission during mating. This heterogeneity in the shedding potential of seropositive individuals should be considered in the future to better evaluate management scenarios in this system as well as in others.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sébastien Lambert
- UMR Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique 5558 Biometry and Evolutionary Biology Laboratory, University of Lyon1, Villeurbanne, France
| | - Emmanuelle Gilot-Fromont
- UMR Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique 5558 Biometry and Evolutionary Biology Laboratory, University of Lyon1, Villeurbanne, France.,VetAgro Sup- Lyon Veterinary Campus, University of Lyon, Marcy l'Étoile, France
| | - Pauline Freycon
- VetAgro Sup- Lyon Veterinary Campus, University of Lyon, Marcy l'Étoile, France
| | - Anne Thébault
- Risk Assessment Department, French Agency for Food, Environmental and Occupational Health and Safety (ANSES), Maisons-Alfort, France
| | - Yvette Game
- Departmental Veterinary Laboratory of Savoie (LDAV 73), Chambéry, France
| | - Carole Toïgo
- Mountain Wildlife Unit, French Hunting and Wildlife Agency (ONCFS), Gières, France
| | - Elodie Petit
- Mountain Wildlife Unit, French Hunting and Wildlife Agency (ONCFS), Sèvrier, France
| | | | - Gaël Reynaud
- Departmental Veterinary Laboratory of Savoie (LDAV 73), Chambéry, France
| | - Maryne Jaÿ
- EU/OIE/FAO & National Reference Laboratory for Animal Brucellosis, Animal Health Laboratory, French Agency for Food, Environmental and Occupational Health and Safety (ANSES)/Paris-Est University, Maisons-Alfort, France
| | - Bruno Garin-Bastuji
- EU/OIE/FAO & National Reference Laboratory for Animal Brucellosis, Animal Health Laboratory, French Agency for Food, Environmental and Occupational Health and Safety (ANSES)/Paris-Est University, Maisons-Alfort, France
| | - Claire Ponsart
- EU/OIE/FAO & National Reference Laboratory for Animal Brucellosis, Animal Health Laboratory, French Agency for Food, Environmental and Occupational Health and Safety (ANSES)/Paris-Est University, Maisons-Alfort, France
| | - Jean Hars
- Wildlife Diseases Unit, French Hunting and Wildlife Agency (ONCFS), Gières, France
| | - Sophie Rossi
- Wildlife Diseases Unit, French Hunting and Wildlife Agency (ONCFS), Gap, France
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