Risk factors associated with hypoxaemia in horses undergoing general anaesthesia: A retrospective study

A Retrospective Study on Pre- and Intraoperative Predictors on the Recovery Quality of Horses After General Anesthesia

Equine anesthesia is related to high morbidity and mortality rates and recent studies suggested that the period of recovery remains the phase associated with the greatest risk of mortality in horses. Intraoperative hypotension, hypoxemia, and hypercapnia are recognized as potential determinants of recovery quality. This study, conducted at the Equine University Hospital of Liege, aimed to explore how these factors influence recovery outcomes and compare complications between non-emergency and emergency procedures. We analyzed data from 1057 horses, with a mean weight of 498 kg (ranging from 150 to 850 kg) and a mean age of 10.7 (ranging from 0.5 to 37 years), undergoing standardized general anesthesia for non-emergency and emergency procedures to assess which factors influence recovery quality. Recoveries were graded as 'good' or 'bad' and age, sex, breed, American Society of Anesthesiologists (ASA) physical status classification, weight, anesthesia duration, presence of hypotension, hypoxemia, and hypercapnia were compared with a logistic regression analysis. Our findings highlight the multifactorial nature of anesthetic recovery in horses, with breed, age, anesthesia and recovery duration, and emergency status emerging as significant influencing factors. Additionally, monitoring and managing hypoxemia and hypotension remain critical due to their recognized impact on recovery quality. However, despite their clinical relevance, the specific effects of these variables on anesthetic recovery in horses remain insufficiently studied, emphasizing the need for further research to refine perioperative management strategies and improve outcomes.

Can Arterial Blood Gas, Electrolyte and Acid-Base Analysis at Admission be Used to Predict Survival to Hospital Discharge for Different Causes of Colic?

BACKGROUND

Predicting outcome in horses presenting with colic remains challenging.

OBJECTIVES

To test whether arterial blood samples in horses admitted for colic predict outcome to hospital discharge for different colic types.

METHODS

Arterial blood samples collected on admission from 358 horses undergoing medical or surgical management of colic were evaluated for pH, PaO2, PaCO2, Na+, K+, iCa2+, Cl-, HCO3 - (P), HCO3 - (P, set), Base (B), Base (ecf) and anion gap. Categories were small intestinal non-strangulating (SINS) or strangulating (SIS) lesions, large colon non-volvulus (LCNV) or volvulus (LCV), small colon non-strangulating (SCNS) or strangulating (SCS) lesions, viscus rupture or other. Multivariable logistic regression models were developed based on survival, or not, to hospital discharge. Odd ratios (ORs) with 95% confidence intervals (95%CI) and area under the curve receiver operator characteristics (AUROC), sensitivity, specificity and positive and negative predictive values were calculated at a cut-off value of p = 0.5.

RESULTS

A total of 295/358 (82.4%) horses survived to hospital discharge. Variables retained as significantly associated with survival were PaO2 for SINS (OR 1.15, 95%CI 1.04-1.27), PaO2 (OR 1.06, 95% CI 1.01-1.11) and Na+ (OR 1.24, 95% CI 1.02-1.52) for SIS, Ca2+ (OR 175.1, 95% CI 2.20-13958) and HCO3 - (P) (OR 1.18, 95% CI 1.01-1.37) for LCNV and PaCO2 (OR 1.47, 95% CI 1.05-2.06) for LCV. AUROCs showed acceptable-excellent discrimination (range: 0.7-0.9), excellent sensitivity (range: 91%-100%) but poor-fair specificity (range: 8%-50%).

CONCLUSIONS

Arterial blood is good at predicting survival based on colic type but less accurate at predicting those horses which do not survive to hospital discharge.

Risk assessment in equine anesthesia: a first evaluation of the usability, utility and predictivity of the two-part CHARIOT

Introduction

An accurate risk score that can predict peri-anesthetic morbidity and mortality in equine patients could improve peri-operative management, outcome and client communication.

Materials and methods

Three hunded horses underwent pre-anesthetic risk assessment using the American Society of Anesthesiologists-Physical Status augmented with equine-specific diseases (ASA-PS-Equine), a multifactorial 10-part rubric risk scale (10-RS), and a combination of both, the Combined horse anesthetic risk identification and optimization tool (CHARIOT). Intra-and post-anesthetic complications, the recovery phase and mortality were recorded over a period of 7 days following general anesthesia. To compare the utility and predictive power of the 3 scores, data were analyzed using binominal logistic regression (p ≤ 0.05) and receiver operating characteristic curve analysis. In addition, inter-observer reliability, speed, safety, ease of use and face validity of the ASA-PS-Equine and the 10-RS were analyzed based on five hypothetical patients.

Results

All scores showed statistically significant associations with various intra-anesthetic complications and parameters of the recovery phase. The discriminant ability of the scores related to the occurrence of intra-anesthetic (AUC = 0.6093-0.6701) and post-anesthetic (AUC = 0.5373-0.6194) complications was only low. The highest diagnostic accuracy for all scores was observed for overall mortality (AUC = 0.7526-0.7970), with the ASA-PS-Equine differentiating most precisely (AUC = 0.7970; 95% CI 0.7199-0.8741). Inter-observer reliability was fair for the 10-RS (κ = 0.39) and moderate for the ASA-PS-Equine (κ = 0.52). Patient assignment to the CHARIOT was predominantly rated as rather easy and quick or very quick.

Limitations and conclusion

The main limitations of the study are the monocentric study design and failure to obtain the full range of points. In conclusion, all 3 scores provide useful information for predicting the mortality risk of equine patients undergoing general anesthesia, whereas intra-and postoperative complications cannot be predicted with these scores.

Arterial Blood Gas, Electrolyte and Acid-Base Values as Diagnostic and Prognostic Indicators in Equine Colic

The study aimed to investigate if arterial blood analysis in conscious horses presenting with signs of colic and breathing ambient air had diagnostic or prognostic value. Arterial blood samples from 352 horses presenting with colic at a university equine referral hospital were analysed for pH, partial pressure of carbon dioxide (PaCO2), partial pressure of oxygen (PaO2), concentrations of sodium (Na+), potassium (K+), ionised calcium (Ca2+) and chloride (Cl-), actual and standardised plasma bicarbonate concentration (HCO3- (P) and HCO3- (P, st)), blood and extracellular fluid base excess (Base (B) and Base (ecf)) and anion gap (AG). Results were compared to previously reported values for healthy horses, and comparisons were made between final diagnosis, treatment and survival to hospital discharge. Significant differences were found between colic cases and healthy reference values between some primary aetiologies. Overall, surgical and non-surgical colic cases differed in Ca2+ and Cl- concentrations and Ca2+ differed between cases that survived to discharge and those that did not. PaO2 differed between small intestinal surgical cases that survived and those that did not. From these results, we developed regression models that demonstrated excellent or good predictive value in identifying the likelihood of surgical versus medical management and survival to hospital discharge.

Evaluation of Nasal Oxygen Administration at Various Flow Rates and Concentrations in Conscious, Standing Adult Horses

This study evaluated the effects of various flow rates and fractions of oxygen on arterial blood gas parameters and on the fraction of inspired oxygen (F_IO₂) delivered to the distal trachea. Oxygen was administered to 6 healthy, conscious, standing, adult horses via single nasal cannula positioned within the nasopharynx. Three flow rates (5, 15, 30 L/min) and fractions of oxygen (21, 50, 100%) were delivered for 15 minutes, each in a randomized order. F_IO₂ was measured at the level of the nares and distal trachea. Adverse reactions were not observed with any flow rate. F_IO₂ (nares and trachea) and PaO₂ increased with increasing flow rate and fraction of oxygen (P < .0001). F_IO₂ (trachea) was significantly less than F_IO₂ (nares) at 50% and 100% oxygen at all flow rates (P < .0001). Differences in PaO₂ were not observed between 100% oxygen-5L/min and 50% oxygen-15L/min and or between 100% oxygen-15L/min and 50% oxygen-30L/min. Tracheal F_IO₂ for 100% oxygen-15L/min was increased compared to 50% oxygen-30L/min (P < .0001). Respiratory rate, ETCO₂, PaCO₂, and pH did not differ between treatments. Administration of 50% oxygen via nasal cannula at 15 and 30 L/min effectively increased in PaO₂ and was well tolerated in conscious, standing, healthy horses. While these results can be used guide therapy in hypoxemic horses, evaluation of the administration of 50% oxygen to horses with respiratory disease is warranted.

A single-cohort retrospective analysis of factors associated with morbidity and mortality in 193 anesthetized domestic goats

OBJECTIVE

To define the morbidity and mortality rates in goats undergoing general anesthesia at a large animal teaching hospital.

STUDY DESIGN

Retrospective, single-cohort, observational study.

ANIMALS

Records of 193 client-owned goats.

METHODS

Data were collected from 218 medical records on 193 goats undergoing general anesthesia between January 2017 and December 2021. Demographic data, anesthetic management, recovery period and perianesthetic complications were recorded. Perianesthetic death was defined as anesthesia-related or anesthesia-contributory death occurring within 72 hours after recovery. Records of goats that were euthanized were reviewed to ascertain the cause of euthanasia. Each explanatory variable was individually investigated by univariable penalized maximum likelihood logistic regression, followed by multivariable analysis. Statistical significance was set at p < 0.05.

RESULTS

Perianesthetic mortality was 7.3%, but was 3.4% when considering only goats undergoing elective procedures. Multivariable analysis showed that gastrointestinal surgeries [odds ratio (OR) 19.17, standard error (SE) 12.99, 95% confidence interval (CI) 5.08-72.33; p < 0.01] and requirement for perianesthetic norepinephrine infusion (OR 10.85, SE 8.82, 95% CI 2.21-53.33; p < 0.01) were associated with increased mortality. Maintaining other variables equal, the use of perianesthetic ketamine infusion was associated with decreased mortality (OR 0.09, SE 0.09, 95% CI 0.01-0.73; p = 0.02). Anesthesia-related or anesthesia-contributory complications included hypothermia (52.4%), bradycardia (38.1%), hypotension (35.3%), hypoxemia (14.8%), regurgitation/aspiration (7.3%), azotemia/acute renal failure (4.6%), myopathies/neuropathies (4.1%) and fever of unknown origin (2.7%).

CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE

In this population, gastrointestinal surgeries and the requirement for perianesthetic norepinephrine infusion were associated with increased mortality in goats undergoing general anesthesia, while ketamine infusion may have a protective effect.

Full-thickness endotracheal tube defect resulting in an anaesthetic circuit leak

BACKGROUND

Loss of endotracheal tube (ETT) integrity secondary to dental damage is reported in the human literature.

OBJECTIVE

To describe this problem in equine anaesthesia.

STUDY DESIGN

Case report.

CLINICAL SUMMARY

An 18-year-old Standardbred gelding presented out of hours with colic signs. Findings on clinical examination and pain refractory to analgesia meant that exploratory laparotomy was elected for. Prior to general anaesthesia (GA) leak testing of the anaesthetic machine was performed and the pilot balloon of the endotracheal tube (ETT) was inflated to confirm cuff integrity. Intermittent-positive pressure ventilation (IPPV) was initiated immediately following placement in dorsal recumbency and connection to the anaesthetic machine. During the inspiratory phase of IPPV, a loud gas leak was audible from the oropharynx and minimal thoracic excursion was observed, with repeated inflations of the ETT cuff unsuccessful at abolishing the leak. Due to suspicion of a defect within the silicone ETT itself, a support arm was used to abolish the curvature of the ETT, maintaining it in a straighter plane. This intervention abolished the leak allowing effective IPPV. After completion of GA, a close inspection of the ETT revealed a full-thickness laceration, thought to be a result of dental damage at an earlier date.

MAIN LIMITATIONS

A single case is described.

CONCLUSIONS

This report emphasises the importance of thorough inspection of the ETT prior to use to effectively secure the airway and enable IPPV provision in critical cases.

Incidence of severe hypoxaemia in anaesthetised horses undergoing emergency exploratory laparotomy

Prevalence and risk factors of severe hypoxaemia in anaesthetised horses undergoing emergency exploratory laparotomy are sparsely documented. The aim of this study was to report incidence of severe hypoxaemia ( PaO 2 < 60 mmHg) in horses undergoing emergency exploratory laparotomy and identify potential risk factors for this complication. A single centre retrospective cross sectional designed was used. Clinical data of 714 horses undergoing general anaesthesia for emergency explorative laparotomy were reviewed. A backward stepwise elimination procedure was used to determine the final multivariable logistic regression model; all covariables with univariable P-values <0.25 were incorporated, with retention of covariables with Wald P-values <0.05 at each step, in order to determine which explanatory variables would be included in the final model. The overall incidence of severe hypoxaemia in our population was 15.3%. Multivariable logistic regression analysis showed that increasing body weight (OR 1.01, 95% CI 1.0-1.01, P = .002), colon torsion (OR 3.0, 95% CI 1.3-6.8, P = .006), increased dead space ventilation (OR 1.06, 95% CI 1.04-1.09, P = <0.001), shorter time between induction of anaesthesia and collection of arterial blood gas samples (OR 0.98, 95% CI 0.98-0.99, P = <0.001) and intra-tracheal aerosolised salbutamol (OR 13.5, 95% CI 7.6-24, P = <0.001) were associated with the outcome. The incidence of hypoxaemia found in our study was in line with previous literature. Increasing body weight, colon torsion and shorter time between the time of induction of anaesthesia and collection of arterial blood gas samples represented risk factors for hypoxaemia.