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Abstract
Influenza is an extremely contagious respiratory disease, which predominantly affects the upper respiratory tract. There are four types of influenza virus, and pigs and chickens are considered two key reservoirs of this virus. Equine influenza (EI) virus was first identified in horses in 1956, in Prague. The influenza A viruses responsible for EI are H7N7 and H3N8. Outbreaks of EI are characterized by their visible and rapid spread, and it has been possible to isolate and characterize H3N8 outbreaks in several countries. The clinical diagnosis of this disease is based on the clinical signs presented by the infected animals, which can be confirmed by performing complementary diagnostic tests. In the diagnosis of EI, in the field, rapid antigen detection tests can be used for a first approach. Treatment is based on the management of the disease and rest for the animal. Regarding the prognosis, it will depend on several factors, such as the animal's vaccination status. One of the important points in this disease is its prevention, which can be done through vaccination. In addition to decreasing the severity of clinical signs and morbidity during outbreaks, vaccination ensures immunity for the animals, reducing the economic impact of this disease.
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Bhardwaj J, Kim MW, Jang J. Rapid Airborne Influenza Virus Quantification Using an Antibody-Based Electrochemical Paper Sensor and Electrostatic Particle Concentrator. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2020; 54:10700-10712. [PMID: 32833440 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.0c00441] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/25/2023]
Abstract
Airborne influenza viruses are responsible for serious respiratory diseases, and most detection methods for airborne viruses are based on extraction of nucleic acids. Herein, vertical-flow-assay-based electrochemical paper immunosensors were fabricated to rapidly quantify the influenza H1N1 viruses in air after sampling with a portable electrostatic particle concentrator (EPC). The effects of antibodies, anti-influenza nucleoprotein antibodies (NP-Abs) and anti-influenza hemagglutinin antibodies (HA-Abs), on the paper sensors as well as nonpulsed high electrostatic fields with and without corona charging on the virus measurement were investigated. The antigenicity losses of the surface (HA) proteins were caused by H2O2 via lipid oxidation-derived radicals and 1O2 via direct protein peroxidation upon exposure of a high electrostatic field. However, minimal losses in antigenicity of NP of the influenza viruses were observed, and the concentration of the H1N1 viruses was more than 160 times higher in the EPC than the BioSampler upon using NP-Ab based paper sensors after 60 min collection. This NP-Ab-based paper sensors with the EPC provided measurements comparable to quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) but much quicker, specific to the influenza H1N1 viruses in the presence of other airborne microorganisms and beads, and more cost-effective than enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay and qPCR.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jyoti Bhardwaj
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Ulsan National Institute of Science and Technology (UNIST), Ulsan 44919, Republic of Korea
| | - Myeong-Woo Kim
- School of Mechanical, Aerospace and Nuclear Engineering, UNIST, Ulsan 44919, Republic of Korea
| | - Jaesung Jang
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Ulsan National Institute of Science and Technology (UNIST), Ulsan 44919, Republic of Korea
- School of Mechanical, Aerospace and Nuclear Engineering, UNIST, Ulsan 44919, Republic of Korea
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Singh RK, Dhama K, Karthik K, Khandia R, Munjal A, Khurana SK, Chakraborty S, Malik YS, Virmani N, Singh R, Tripathi BN, Munir M, van der Kolk JH. A Comprehensive Review on Equine Influenza Virus: Etiology, Epidemiology, Pathobiology, Advances in Developing Diagnostics, Vaccines, and Control Strategies. Front Microbiol 2018; 9:1941. [PMID: 30237788 PMCID: PMC6135912 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2018.01941] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/07/2018] [Accepted: 07/31/2018] [Indexed: 01/23/2023] Open
Abstract
Among all the emerging and re-emerging animal diseases, influenza group is the prototype member associated with severe respiratory infections in wide host species. Wherein, Equine influenza (EI) is the main cause of respiratory illness in equines across globe and is caused by equine influenza A virus (EIV-A) which has impacted the equine industry internationally due to high morbidity and marginal morality. The virus transmits easily by direct contact and inhalation making its spread global and leaving only limited areas untouched. Hitherto reports confirm that this virus crosses the species barriers and found to affect canines and few other animal species (cat and camel). EIV is continuously evolving with changes at the amino acid level wreaking the control program a tedious task. Until now, no natural EI origin infections have been reported explicitly in humans. Recent advances in the diagnostics have led to efficient surveillance and rapid detection of EIV infections at the onset of outbreaks. Incessant surveillance programs will aid in opting a better control strategy for this virus by updating the circulating vaccine strains. Recurrent vaccination failures against this virus due to antigenic drift and shift have been disappointing, however better understanding of the virus pathogenesis would make it easier to design effective vaccines predominantly targeting the conserved epitopes (HA glycoprotein). Additionally, the cold adapted and canarypox vectored vaccines are proving effective in ceasing the severity of disease. Furthermore, better understanding of its genetics and molecular biology will help in estimating the rate of evolution and occurrence of pandemics in future. Here, we highlight the advances occurred in understanding the etiology, epidemiology and pathobiology of EIV and a special focus is on designing and developing effective diagnostics, vaccines and control strategies for mitigating the emerging menace by EIV.
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Affiliation(s)
- Raj K. Singh
- ICAR-Indian Veterinary Research Institute, Bareilly, India
| | - Kuldeep Dhama
- Division of Pathology, ICAR-Indian Veterinary Research Institute, Bareilly, India
| | - Kumaragurubaran Karthik
- Central University Laboratory, Tamil Nadu Veterinary and Animal Sciences University, Chennai, India
| | - Rekha Khandia
- Department of Biochemistry and Genetics, Barkatullah University, Bhopal, India
| | - Ashok Munjal
- Department of Biochemistry and Genetics, Barkatullah University, Bhopal, India
| | | | - Sandip Chakraborty
- Department of Veterinary Microbiology, College of Veterinary Sciences and Animal Husbandry, West Tripura, India
| | - Yashpal S. Malik
- Division of Biological Standardization, ICAR-Indian Veterinary Research Institute, Bareilly, India
| | | | - Rajendra Singh
- Division of Pathology, ICAR-Indian Veterinary Research Institute, Bareilly, India
| | | | - Muhammad Munir
- Division of Biomedical and Life Sciences, Lancaster University, Lancaster, United Kingdom
| | - Johannes H. van der Kolk
- Division of Clinical Veterinary Medicine, Swiss Institute for Equine Medicine (ISME), Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Bern and Agroscope, Bern, Switzerland
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Gahan J, Garvey M, Gildea S, Gür E, Kagankaya A, Cullinane A. Whole-genome sequencing and antigenic analysis of the first equine influenza virus identified in Turkey. Influenza Other Respir Viruses 2018; 12:374-382. [PMID: 28940727 PMCID: PMC5907808 DOI: 10.1111/irv.12485] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 07/26/2017] [Indexed: 01/10/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND In 2013, there was an outbreak of acute respiratory disease in racehorses in Turkey. The clinical signs were consistent with equine influenza (EI). OBJECTIVE The aim was to confirm the cause of the outbreak and characterise the causal virus. METHODS A pan-reactive influenza type A real-time RT-PCR and a rapid antigen detection kit were used for confirmatory diagnosis of equine influenza virus (EIV). Immunological susceptibility to EIV was examined using single radial haemolysis and ELISA. Antigenic characterisation was completed by haemagglutinin inhibition using a panel of specific ferret antisera. Genetic characterisation was achieved by whole-genome sequencing using segment-specific primers with M13 tags. RESULTS A H3N8 EIV of the Florida clade 2 sublineage (FC2) was confirmed as the causal agent. The index cases were unvaccinated and immunologically susceptible. Phylogenetic analysis of the HA1 and NA genes demonstrated that A/equine/Ankara/1/2013 clustered with the FC2 strains circulating in Europe. Antigenic characterisation confirmed the FC2 classification and demonstrated the absence of significant drift. Whole-genome sequencing indicated that A/equine/Ankara/1/2013 is most closely related to the viruses described as the 179 group based on the substitution I179V in HA1, for example A/equine/East Renfrewshire/2/2011, A/equine/Cambremer/1/2012 and A/equine/Saone et Loire/1/2015. The greatest diversity was observed in the NS1 segment and the polymerase complex. CONCLUSIONS The first recorded outbreak of EI in Turkey was caused by an FC2 virus closely related to viruses circulating in Europe. Antigenic and genetic characterisation gave no indication that the current OIE recommendations for EI vaccine composition require modification.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Emre Gür
- Head of Equine Health and Veterinary Services DepartmentJockey Club of TurkeyIstanbulTurkey
| | - Anil Kagankaya
- Department of SurgeryAnkara University Faculty of Veterinary MedicineAnkaraTurkey
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Gora IM, Kwasnik M, Zmudzinski JF, Rozek W. Chorioallantoic membranes of embryonated chicken eggs as an alternative system for isolation of equine influenza virus. Virol J 2017. [PMID: 28637468 PMCID: PMC5480115 DOI: 10.1186/s12985-017-0788-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Influenza virus isolation in embryonated chicken eggs (ECEs) is not applicable for rapid diagnosis, however it allows the recovery and propagation of the viable virus. A low number of infectious virus particles in the swabs, poor quality of samples or individual strain properties can lead to difficulties during the virus isolation process. We propose to utilize chorioallantoic membranes (CAM) of ECEs with the assistance of real-time RT PCR to facilitate equine influenza virus isolation. Methods Real-time RT PCR was used to detect influenza virus genetic material in amniotic/allantoic fluids (AF) and CAM of ECEs. Haemagglutination assay was used for AF. We used highly diluted virus as a substitute of clinical specimen for ECEs inoculation. Results Our study demonstrated that real-time RT PCR testing of CAM homogenates was more useful than testing of AF for EIV detection in ECEs. Positive results from CAM allowed to select the embryos from those with haemagglutination assay (HA) - and real-time RT PCR-negative AF for further passages. Using homogenates of CAM for subsequent passages, we finally obtained HA-positive AF, which confirmed virus replication. Conclusion We postulate that real-time RT PCR testing of CAM homogenates and their subsequent passages may facilitate the isolation of equine influenza viruses. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12985-017-0788-3) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ilona Marcelina Gora
- Department of Virology, National Veterinary Research Institute, Partyzantow 57, 24 100, Pulawy, Poland
| | - Malgorzata Kwasnik
- Department of Virology, National Veterinary Research Institute, Partyzantow 57, 24 100, Pulawy, Poland
| | - Jan Franciszek Zmudzinski
- Department of Virology, National Veterinary Research Institute, Partyzantow 57, 24 100, Pulawy, Poland
| | - Wojciech Rozek
- Department of Virology, National Veterinary Research Institute, Partyzantow 57, 24 100, Pulawy, Poland.
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Yamanaka T, Nemoto M, Bannai H, Tsujimura K, Kondo T, Matsumura T, Gildea S, Cullinane A. Evaluation of twenty-two rapid antigen detection tests in the diagnosis of Equine Influenza caused by viruses of H3N8 subtype. Influenza Other Respir Viruses 2016; 10:127-33. [PMID: 26568369 PMCID: PMC4746556 DOI: 10.1111/irv.12358] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 10/23/2015] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Equine influenza (EI) is a highly contagious disease caused by viruses of the H3N8 subtype. The rapid diagnosis of EI is essential to reduce the disease spread. Many rapid antigen detection (RAD) tests for diagnosing human influenza are available, but their ability to diagnose EI has not been systematically evaluated. Objectives The aim of this study was to compare the performance of 22 RAD tests in the diagnosis of EI. Methods The 22 RAD tests were performed on fivefold serial dilutions of EI virus to determine their detection limits. The four most sensitive RAD tests (ImmunoAce Flu, BD Flu examan, Quick chaser Flu A, B and ESPLINE Influenza A&B‐N) were further evaluated using nasopharyngeal samples collected from experimentally infected and naturally infected horses. The results were compared to those obtained using molecular tests. Results The detection limits of the 22 RAD tests varied hugely. Even the four RAD tests showing the best sensitivity were 125‐fold less sensitive than the molecular techniques. The duration of virus detection in the experimentally infected horses was shorter using the RAD tests than using the molecular techniques. The RAD tests detected between 27% and 73% of real‐time RT‐PCR‐positive samples from naturally infected horses. Conclusions The study demonstrated the importance of choosing the right RAD tests as only three of 22 were fit for diagnosing EI. It was also indicated that even RAD tests with the highest sensitivity serve only as an adjunct to molecular tests because of the potential for false‐negative results.
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Affiliation(s)
- Takashi Yamanaka
- Equine Research Institute, Japan Racing Association, Shimotsuke, Tochigi, Japan
| | - Manabu Nemoto
- Equine Research Institute, Japan Racing Association, Shimotsuke, Tochigi, Japan
| | - Hiroshi Bannai
- Equine Research Institute, Japan Racing Association, Shimotsuke, Tochigi, Japan
| | - Koji Tsujimura
- Equine Research Institute, Japan Racing Association, Shimotsuke, Tochigi, Japan
| | - Takashi Kondo
- Equine Research Institute, Japan Racing Association, Shimotsuke, Tochigi, Japan
| | - Tomio Matsumura
- Equine Research Institute, Japan Racing Association, Shimotsuke, Tochigi, Japan
| | - Sarah Gildea
- Virology Unit, Irish Equine Centre, Johnstown, Naas, Co. Kildare, Ireland
| | - Ann Cullinane
- Virology Unit, Irish Equine Centre, Johnstown, Naas, Co. Kildare, Ireland
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