Unidirectional Cross-tolerance from Levetiracetam to Carbamazepine in Amygdala-kindled Seizures

Subchronic Treatment with CBZ Transiently Attenuates Its Anticonvulsant Activity in the Maximal Electroshock-Induced Seizure Test in Mice

The objective of this study is to evaluate the anticonvulsant efficacy of carbamazepine (CBZ) following acute and chronic administration across four treatment protocols in a murine model of maximal electroshock-induced seizures. A single dose of the drug was utilized as a control. The neurotoxic effects were evaluated in the chimney test and the passive avoidance task. Furthermore, plasma and brain concentrations of CBZ were quantified across all treatment protocols. The subchronic administration of CBZ (7 × 2 protocol) resulted in an attenuation of its antielectroshock effect. In the three remaining treatment regimens (7 × 1, 14 × 1, and 14 × 2) the median effective doses of CBZ were comparable to the control. Neither acute nor chronic treatment with CBZ resulted in a discernible impact on motor coordination or long-term memory. The plasma and brain concentrations of CBZ were significantly lower in most chronic protocols when compared to a single-dose application. This may explain the transient attenuation of CBZ effectiveness in the 7 × 2 protocol, but not the return to the previous level. The anticonvulsant and neurotoxic profiles of CBZ did not differ after single and chronic administration. Therefore, experimental chronic studies with CBZ are not prerequisites for concluding and possibly translating results to clinical conditions.

The current approach of the Epilepsy Therapy Screening Program contract site for identifying improved therapies for the treatment of pharmacoresistant seizures in epilepsy

The Epilepsy Therapy Screening Program (ETSP), formerly known as the Anticonvulsant Screening Program (ASP), has played an important role in the preclinical evaluation of many of the antiseizure drugs (ASDs) that have been approved by the FDA and thus made available for the treatment of seizures. Recent changes to the animal models used at the contract site of the ETSP at the University of Utah have been implemented in an attempt to better model the unmet clinical needs of people with pharmacoresistant epilepsy and thus identify improved therapies. In this review, we describe the changes that have occurred over the last several years in the screening approach used at the contract site and, in particular, detail the pharmacology associated with several of the animal models and assays that are either new to the program or have been recently characterized in more depth. There is optimism that the refined approach used by the ETSP contract site, wherein etiologically relevant models that include those with spontaneous seizures are used, will identify novel, potentially disease modifying therapies for people with pharmacoresistant epilepsy and those at risk for developing epilepsy. This article is part of the special issue entitled 'New Epilepsy Therapies for the 21st Century - From Antiseizure Drugs to Prevention, Modification and Cure of Epilepsy'.

Evaluation of antiseizure drug efficacy and tolerability in the rat lamotrigine-resistant amygdala kindling model

OBJECTIVE

The lamotrigine-resistant amygdala kindling model uses repeated administration of a low dose of lamotrigine during the kindling process to produce resistance to lamotrigine, which also extends to some other antiseizure drugs (ASDs). This model of pharmacoresistant epilepsy has been incorporated into the testing scheme utilized by the Epilepsy Therapy Screening Program (ETSP). Although some ASDs have been evaluated in this model, a comprehensive evaluation of ASD prototypes has not been reported.

METHODS

Following depth electrode implantation and recovery, rats were exposed to lamotrigine (5 mg/kg, i.p.) prior to each stimulation during the kindling development process (~3 weeks). A test dose of lamotrigine was used to confirm that fully kindled rats were lamotrigine-resistant. Efficacy (unambiguous protection against electrically elicited convulsive seizures) was defined as a Racine score < 3 in the absence of overt compound-induced side effects. Various ASDs, comprising several mechanistic classes, were administered to fully kindled, lamotrigine-resistant rats. Where possible, multiple doses of each drug were administered in order to obtain median effective dose (ED50) values.

RESULTS

Five sodium channel blockers tested (eslicarbazepine, lacosamide, lamotrigine, phenytoin, and rufinamide) were either not efficacious or effective only at doses that were not well-tolerated in this model. In contrast, compounds targeting either GABA receptors (clobazam, clonazepam, phenobarbital) or GABA-uptake proteins (tiagabine) produced dose-dependent efficacy against convulsive seizures. Compounds acting to modulate Ca2+ channels show differential activity: Ethosuximide was not effective, whereas gabapentin was moderately efficacious. Ezogabine and valproate were also highly effective, whereas topiramate and levetiracetam were not effective at the doses tested.

SIGNIFICANCE

These results strengthen the conclusion that the lamotrigine-resistant amygdala kindling model demonstrates pharmacoresistance to certain ASDs, including, but not limited to, sodium channel blockers, and supports the utility of the model for helping to identify compounds with potential efficacy against pharmacoresistant seizures.

Levetiracetam effect and electrophysiological mechanism of action in rats with cobalt-induced chronic epilepsy

Levetiracetam was initially developed as a nootropic drug, although since 2002 it has been used as anticonvulsant for the treatment of partial and generalized epilepsy syndromes. The purpose of the research was to investigate anti-paroxysmal activity of levetiracetam (LEV) on the model of cobalt-induced chronic epilepsy caused by the application of cobalt to the sensorimotor area of the rat cortex to evaluate LEV impact on the different stages of epileptogenesis. LEV effects were studied at the initial stage of the epileptogenesis (2nd day after the cobalt application) and at the stage of generalized paroxysmal activity (6th day after the cobalt application). The research showed that levetiracetam administration (dosages 50 mg/kg and 200 mg/kg) at the early stage of the epileptogenesis had no statistically significant effect on the development of paroxysmal activity in both primary and secondary epileptic areas: in the ipsi- and contralateral cortex, hypothalamus and hippocampus. LEV administration on 6th day (dosage 50 mg/kg) did not have statistical effect on the epileptogenesis, while at a dosage of 200 mg/kg on 6th day LEV significantly suppressed paroxysmal activity in the studied structures of rats with cobalt epilepsy. The strongest anti-paroxysmal effect was detected in hippocampus and was expressed as the normalization of bioelectrical activity and the appearance of a regular theta rhythm. Thus, LEV effects are mostly directed to the hippocampal area of epileptiform activity and, to a lesser extent, to the cortical area.

Effects of Antiepileptic Drugs on Spontaneous Recurrent Seizures in a Novel Model of Extended Hippocampal Kindling in Mice

Epilepsy is a common neurological disorder characterized by naturally-occurring spontaneous recurrent seizures and comorbidities. Kindling has long been used to model epileptogenic mechanisms and to assess antiepileptic drugs. In particular, extended kindling can induce spontaneous recurrent seizures without gross brain lesions, as seen clinically. To date, the development of spontaneous recurrent seizures following extended kindling, and the effect of the antiepileptic drugs on these seizures are not well understood. In the present study we aim to develop a mouse model of extended hippocampal kindling for the first time. Once established, we plan to evaluate the effect of three different antiepileptic drugs on the development of the extended-hippocampal-kindled-induced spontaneous recurrent seizures. Male C57 black mice were used for chronic hippocampal stimulations or handling manipulations (twice daily for up to 70 days). Subsequently, animals underwent continuous video/EEG monitoring for seizure detection. Spontaneous recurrent seizures were consistently observed in extended kindled mice but no seizures were detected in the control animals. The aforementioned seizures were generalized events characterized by hippocampal ictal discharges and concurrent motor seizures. Incidence and severity of the seizures was relatively stable while monitored over a few months after termination of the hippocampal stimulation. Three antiepileptic drugs with distinct action mechanisms were tested: phenytoin, lorazepam and levetiracetam. They were applied via intra-peritoneal injections at anticonvulsive doses and their effects on the spontaneous recurrent seizures were analyzed 10-12 h post-injection. Phenytoin (25 mg/kg) and levetiracetam (400 mg/kg) abolished the spontaneous recurrent seizures. Lorazepam (1.5 mg/kg) decreased motor seizure severity but did not reduce the incidence and duration of corresponding hippocampal discharges, implicating its inhibitory effects on seizure spread. No gross brain lesions were observed in a set of extended hippocampal kindled mice submitted to histological evaluation. All these data suggests that our model could be considered as a novel mouse model of extended hippocampal kindling. Some limitations remain to be considered.

Effect of zonisamide on refractory epilepsy during pregnancy in lamotrigine resistant kindled rats

Drug-resistant epilepsy with uncontrolled severe seizures despite state-of-the-art medical treatment continues to be a major clinical problem. Pregnancy is a state where drug pharmacokinetic changes are more pronounced and more rapid than any other period of life. The current study investigated the effect of zonisamide (ZNS) on refractory epilepsy during pregnancy in lamotrigine-resistant kindled rats. Fifty-six lamotrigine (LTG)-resistant kindled Wistar rats were divided into five experimental (four pregnant and one non-pregnant) and 2 positive controls (pregnant and non-pregnant) groups and eight intact Wistar rats were put in the negative pregnant control group. Experimental groups received daily ZNS 50mg/kg by oral gavage and 30min later, pentylenetetrazol (PTZ) (30mg/kg) was injected intraperitoneal (i.p) on Gestational Days 10-15 (in rats with or without ZNS or methanol and ethyl acetate as a ZNS solvent challenge in days -5 to 0) or Days 15-20 and for six days in the non-pregnant group. The positive control groups received the ZNS solvent for the same number of days, but the negative pregnant control group did not receive any treatment. Epilepsy was significantly controlled by ZNS in the experimental groups compared to the positive control groups. It was concluded that ZNS can control refractory epilepsy during pregnancy and increase pregnancy survival in refractory epileptic rats.

Tolerance to the beneficial effects of prophylactic migraine drugs: a systematic review of causes and mechanisms

Loss of benefit of a previously effective treatment regimen, also known as tolerance, can be an important barrier to the successful preventive treatment of migraine. We undertook a systematic review of the literature to identify the prevalence and possible mechanisms of drug tolerance in migraine prophylaxis. Results demonstrate that the frequency of tolerance to prophylactic migraine treatment is unknown, but available data support an estimate that it occurs in 1-8% of patients receiving prophylaxis. Four broad types of tolerance were identified that are likely to be relevant to migraine prophylaxis. These are pharmacokinetic, pharmacodynamic, behavioral, and cross tolerance. The mechanisms that underlie these types of tolerance determine whether their effects can be overcome or minimized. For example, certain forms of tolerance may be affected by manipulation of environmental cues associated with drug administration, by the order in which drugs are used, and by the concomitant use of other medications. Many medications used for migraine prophylaxis exert their effects through the endogenous opioid system. The implications of this finding are explored, particularly the parallels between medication overuse headache and tolerance to migraine prophylaxis. Given the many ways in which tolerance to migraine medications may develop, in some ways it is not surprising that migraine-preventive drugs stop working; it is more surprising that in many cases they do not.

Tolerance to the prophylactic effects of carbamazepine and related mood stabilizers in the treatment of bipolar disorders

Tolerance development after successful long‐term treatment of bipolar disorder is under recognized, as are ways to prevent or show its occurrence or reverse it once it has occurred. We review the clinical literature which suggests that tolerance can develop to most treatment approaches in bipolar illness and present an animal model of tolerance development to anticonvulsant effects of carbamazepine or lamotrigine on amgydala‐kindled seizures. In this model tolerance does not have a pharmacokinetic basis, but is contingent upon the drug being present in the brain at the time of amygdala stimulation. The occurrence of seizures in the absence of drug is sufficient to reverse tolerance and re‐establish anticonvulsant efficacy. Based on the model, we hypothesize that some episode‐induced compensatory adaptive changes in gene expression fail to occur in tolerant subjects and that episodes off medication re‐induce these changes and renew drug effectiveness. Approaches that slow or reverse tolerance development in the animal model are reviewed so that they can be tested for their applicability in the clinic. Criteria for assessing tolerance development are offered in the hope that this will facilitate a more systemic literature about its prevalence, prevention, and reversal. Careful longitudinal monitoring of episode occurrence is essential to understanding tolerance development in the affective disorder and its treatment.

ECoG studies of valproate, carbamazepine and halothane in frontal-lobe epilepsy induced by head injury in the rat

The use of electrocorticography (ECoG) with etiologically realistic epilepsy models promises to facilitate the discovery of better anti-epileptic drugs (AEDs). However, this novel approach is labor intensive, and must be optimized. To this end, we employed rostral parasagittal fluid percussion injury (rpFPI) in the adolescent rat, which closely replicates human contusive closed head injury and results in posttraumatic epilepsy (PTE). We systematically examined variables affecting the power to detect anti-epileptic effects by ECoG and used a non-parametric bootstrap strategy to test several different statistics, study designs, statistical tests, and impact of non-responders. We found that logarithmically transformed data acquired in repeated-measures experiments provided the greatest statistical power to detect decreases in seizure frequencies of preclinical interest with just 8 subjects and with up to approximately 40% non-responders. We then used this optimized design to study the anti-epileptic effects of acute exposure to halothane, and chronic (1 week) exposures to carbamazepine (CBZ) and valproate (VPA) 1 month post-injury. While CBZ was ineffective in all animals, VPA induced, during treatment, a progressive decrease in seizure frequency in animals primarily suffering from non-spreading neocortical seizures, but was ineffective in animals with a high frequency of spreading seizures. Halothane powerfully blocked all seizure activity. The data show that rpFPI and chronic ECoG can conveniently be employed for the evaluation of AEDs, suggest that VPA may be more effective than CBZ to treat some forms of PTE, and support the theory that pharmacoresistance may depend on the severity of epilepsy. The data also demonstrate the utility of chronic exposures to experimental drugs in preclinical studies and highlight the need for greater attention to etiology in clinical studies of AEDs.

Development of tolerance to levetiracetam in rats with chronic epilepsy

PURPOSE

Pharmacoresistance is a major problem in the treatment of epilepsy. We showed previously that pharmacoresistance, at least partially, is due to an up-regulation of the multidrug transporter (MDT) P-glycoprotein (P-gp): inhibition of P-gp improves seizure control in phenytoin-treated epileptic rats (poststatus epilepticus rat model for temporal lobe epilepsy). Since it has been suggested that levetiracetam (LEV) is no substrate for MDTs, we hypothesized that LEV would more adequately control seizures in this rat model.

METHODS

Chronic epileptic rats were treated repeatedly with LEV (2-week interval; different dosages) via continuous infusion using osmotic minipumps, 5-6 months after electrically induced status epilepticus. The anticonvulsive effects were determined by video-EEG monitoring and the concentration of LEV was measured in plasma and brain homogenates using gas chromatography.

RESULTS

LEV adequately entered the epileptic brain and dose-dependently suppressed spontaneous seizures in chronic epileptic rats for 3-4 days. Hereafter, seizure frequency increased, while LEV plasma levels did not change. Seizure behavior was less severe throughout the whole treatment. LEV did not affect seizure duration. After a withdrawal period of 2 weeks all rats initially responded again to LEV.

CONCLUSIONS

The initial seizure control by LEV supports the observation that LEV is not impeded by MDTs. However, the failure to control seizures for a longer period of time indicates the development of tolerance to this drug. This poses another problem in the treatment of this kind of epilepsy. Whether tolerance may be prevented by intermittent administration of LEV should be further investigated.

Levetiracetam: the profile of a novel anticonvulsant drug-part I: preclinical data

The objective of this article was to review and summarize the available reports on the preclinical profile of the novel anticonvulsant drug levetiracetam (LEV). Therefore, a careful search was conducted in the MEDLINE database and combined with guidelines from regulatory agencies, proceedings of professional scientific meetings, and information provided by the manufacturers. This article provides detailed information on the anticonvulsant effects of LEV in various animal models of epilepsy and on its pharmacology in laboratory animals. The mechanism of action of LEV is reviewed, with special regard to its recently discovered binding site, the synaptic vesicle protein 2A. In general, LEV is shown to be a safe, broad-spectrum anticonvulsant drug with highly beneficial pharmacokinetic properties and a distinct mechanism of action. The clinical studies with LEV will be discussed in the second part of this review article to be published subsequently.

Refractory Epilepsy: Clinical Overview

The incidence of refractory epilepsy remains high despite the influx of many new antiepileptic drugs (AEDs) over the past 10 years. Epidemiological data indicate that 20-40% of the patients with newly diagnosed epilepsy will become refractory to treatment. Factors that may be used to predict whether or not a patient will respond favorably to AED therapy include the type of epilepsy, underlying syndrome, etiology, and the patient's history of seizure frequency, density, and clustering. Environmental factors, such as trauma and prior drug exposure, and genetic factors that predetermine the rate of absorption, metabolism, and uptake of a drug by target tissue may also uniquely impact an individual and influence their response to AED therapy. Treatment resistance is, therefore, a multifaceted phenomenon. Since individuals with refractory epilepsy do not share a common reason for their treatment resistance, the use of targeted drug therapies may be our best option for improving treatment outcomes in this patient population. Pharmacogeneticists are currently attempting to understand the genetic basis of refractory epilepsy so that they can identify subgroups of patients who share a common genetic background and then target drug therapies to meet their specific needs.

Kindling and sensitization as models for affective episode recurrence, cyclicity, and tolerance phenomena

We use the non-homologous model of sensitization and kindling to help conceptualize processes occurring in the longitudinal course of bipolar disorder. The models help focus on the phenomena of episode recurrence, regression, and cycle acceleration occurring without medication and during treatment, when these progressive processes can re-emerge during tolerance development. The preclinical data suggest that it is the ratio of pathological versus adaptive factors mediated by changes in gene expression that mediate episode recurrence or suppression. During tolerance development, there may be selective loss of some episode-induced adaptive factors that may be re-engendered during a period off that medication. The models reveal long-term molecular changes induced by recurrent stresses, episodes of illness, and substances of abuse that can accumulate and lead to progressive increases in vulnerability to episode recurrence. The clinical and preclinical data converge in emphasizing the importance of prevention and early and sustained prophylaxis. New data also implicate brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) in genetic and environmental illness vulnerability and progression, as well as in the mechanisms of action of the mood stabilizers and antidepressants. Therapeutic agents may thus not only prevent recurrent affective episodes and their adverse consequences on the brain, behavior, and quality of life, but they may also be able to ameliorate the effects of stressors, and reverse or prevent some of the basic pathological brain mechanisms underlying illness progression.

Experimental and clinical evidence for loss of effect (tolerance) during prolonged treatment with antiepileptic drugs

Development of tolerance (i.e., the reduction in response to a drug after repeated administration) is an adaptive response of the body to prolonged exposure to the drug, and tolerance to antiepileptic drugs (AEDs) is no exception. Tolerance develops to some drug effects much more rapidly than to others. The extent of tolerance depends on the drug and individual (genetic?) factors. Tolerance may lead to attenuation of side effects but also to loss of efficacy of AEDs and is reversible after discontinuation of drug treatment. Different experimental approaches are used to study tolerance in laboratory animals. Development of tolerance depends on the experimental model, drug, drug dosage, and duration of treatment, so that a battery of experimental protocols is needed to evaluate fully whether tolerance to effect occurs. Two major types of tolerance are known. Pharmacokinetic (metabolic) tolerance, due to induction of AED-metabolizing enzymes has been shown for most first-generation AEDs, and is easy to overcome by increasing dosage. Pharmacodynamic (functional) tolerance is due to "adaptation" of AED targets (e.g., by loss of receptor sensitivity) and has been shown experimentally for all AEDs that lose activity during prolonged treatment. Functional tolerance may lead to complete loss of AED activity and cross-tolerance to other AEDs. Convincing experimental evidence indicates that almost all first-, second-, and third-generation AEDs lose their antiepileptic activity during prolonged treatment, although to a different extent. Because of diverse confounding factors, detecting tolerance in patients with epilepsy is more difficult but can be done with careful assessment of decline during long-term individual patient response. After excluding confounding factors, tolerance to antiepileptic effect for most modern and old AEDs can be shown in small subgroups of responders by assessing individual or group response. Development of tolerance to the antiepileptic activity of an AED may be an important reason for failure of drug treatment. Knowledge of tolerance to AED effects as a mechanism of drug resistance in previous responders is important for patients, physicians, and scientists.

Monotherapy treatment of bipolar disorder with levetiracetam

Bipolar patients with early-onset, comorbid substance abuse, rapid cycling, and mixed episodes are difficult to treat and frequently require rational polypharmacy. When polypharmacy is unsuccessful, the clinician must consider the off-label use of newer psychotropics. Levetiracetam is a novel anticonvulsant with antikindling, inhibitory, and neuroprotective properties that is effective in an animal model of mania. This case report describes a patient with treatment-resistant rapid cycling bipolar disorder who failed 15 psychotropics, individually or in various combinations (maximum of 6), but ultimately responded to levetiracetam monotherapy and remained without bipolar features during 1 year of maintenance treatment, excluding 1 week during which the patient was medicine noncompliant. Further, methylphenidate used to treat comorbid attention deficit disorder did not precipitate manic features. Levetiracetam should be further studied for its potential use in the treatment of bipolar disorders.