Chinese medicinal herb, Acanthopanax gracilistylus, extract induces cell cycle arrest of human tumor cells in vitro

Botany, traditional usages, phytochemistry, pharmaceutical analysis, and pharmacology of Eleutherococcus nodiflorus (Dunn) S.Y.Hu: A systematic review

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Eleutherococcus nodiflorus (Dunn) S.Y.Hu (Araliaceae), also called Eleutherococcus gracilistylus, Acanthopanax gracilistylus, and Xi-zhu-wu-jia (Wujiapi or Nan Wujiapi) in Chinese, is a widely used traditional Chinese herb with the effects of dispelling pathogenic wind and eliminating dampness, nourishing liver and kidney, diuresis and detumescence, promoting blood circulation for removing blood stasis, and strengthening the bones and tendons according to the theory of Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM). It has been used as medicine for the treatment of paralysis, arthritis, rheumatism, lameness, body asthenia, fatigue, edema, beriberi, and liver diseases. Meanwhile, E. nodiflorus (EN, thereafter) has ginseng-like activities known as "ginseng-like herb".

AIMS OF THE REVIEW

This review aims to present comprehensive information for the research progress of EN, including taxonomic position, botany, traditional usages, phytochemistry, pharmaceutical analysis, pharmacology and toxicology. Among them, phytochemical and pharmacological studies are mainly focused.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Relevant literature was acquired from scientific databases including Web of Science, PubMed, Google Scholar, Baidu Scholar, SciFinder and Chinese national knowledge infrastructure (CNKI). Monographs and Chinese pharmacopeia were also utilized as references.

RESULTS

In the past decade, a great number of phytochemical and pharmaceutical analyses, as well as pharmacological studies on EN have been carried out. Several kinds of chemical compositions have been reported, including essential oil, sesquiterpenes, diterpenes, triterpenes, phenylpropanoids, lignans, caffeoyl quinic acids, flavonoids, steroids, fatty acids, ceramides as well as other compounds, among which, diterpenes and triterpenes were considered to be the most active components. The fingerprint chromatography, qualitative and quantitative analysis were used for the methods of quality control of EN. Considerable pharmacological experiments in vitro and in vivo have demonstrated that EN possessed hypoglycemic, anti-inflammatory, anticancer, anti-ageing, anti-fatigue, immunomodulatory, hepatoprotective, antioxidant, anti-AChE, anti-BuChE, anti-hyaluronidase, and antiobesity activities.

CONCLUSIONS

As an important TCM, a large number of investigations have proved that EN and terpenoids isolated from EN have markedly therapeutic efficacy on diabetes, inflammation, and cancer disorders. These research findings provide modern scientific evidence for the traditional uses of EN. Moreover, more novel and active secondary metabolites from EN, as well as the in vivo and clinical in-depth tests are required in the future.

Comparative Analysis of Acanthopanacis Cortex and Periplocae Cortex Using an Electronic Nose and Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry Coupled with Multivariate Statistical Analysis

Chinese Herbal Medicines (CHMs) can be identified by experts according to their odors. However, the identification of these medicines is subjective and requires long-term experience. The samples of Acanthopanacis Cortex and Periplocae Cortex used were dried cortexes, which are often confused in the market due to their similar appearance, but their chemical composition and odor are different. The clinical use of the two herbs is different, but the phenomenon of being confused with each other often occurs. Therefore, we used an electronic nose (E-nose) to explore the differences in odor information between the two species for fast and robust discrimination, in order to provide a scientific basis for avoiding confusion and misuse in the process of production, circulation and clinical use. In this study, the odor and volatile components of these two medicinal materials were detected by the E-nose and by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS), respectively. An E-nose combined with pattern analysis methods such as principal component analysis (PCA) and partial least squares (PLS) was used to discriminate the cortex samples. The E-nose was used to determine the odors of the samples and enable rapid differentiation of Acanthopanacis Cortex and Periplocae Cortex. GC-MS was utilized to reveal the differences between the volatile constituents of Acanthopanacis Cortex and Periplocae Cortex. In all, 82 components including 9 co-contained components were extracted by chromatographic peak integration and matching, and 24 constituents could be used as chemical markers to distinguish these two species. The E-nose detection technology is able to discriminate between Acanthopanacis Cortex and Periplocae Cortex, with GC-MS providing support to determine the material basis of the E-nose sensors' response. The proposed method is rapid, simple, eco-friendly and can successfully differentiate these two medicinal materials by their odors. It can be applied to quality control links such as online detection, and also provide reference for the establishment of other rapid detection methods. The further development and utilization of this technology is conducive to the further supervision of the quality of CHMs and the healthy development of the industry.

Lupane Triterpenes from the Leaves of Acanthopanax gracilistylus

The phytochemical study on the leaves of Acanthopanax gracilistylus (Araliaceae) resulted in the discovery of a new lupane-triterpene compound, acangraciligenin S (1), and a new lupane-triterpene glycoside, acangraciliside S (2), as well as two known ones, 3α,11α-dihydroxy-lup-20(29)-en-23,28-dioic acid (3) and acankoreoside C (4). Their chemical structures were elucidated by mass, 1D- and 2D-nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy. The chemical structures of the new compounds 1 and 2 were determined to be 1β,3α-dihydroxy-lup-20(29)-en-23, 28-dioic acid and 1β,3α-dihydroxy-lup-20(29)-en-23,28-dioic acid 28-O-[α-l-rhamnopyranosyl-(1→4)-β-d-glucopyranosyl-(1→6)-β-d-glucopyranosyl] ester, respectively. The anti-neuroinflammatory activity of the selective compounds, 1 and 3, were evaluated with lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced BV2 microglia. The tested compounds showed moderate inhibitory effect of nitric oxide (NO) production.

Understanding the Effectiveness of Natural Compound Mixtures in Cancer through Their Molecular Mode of Action

Many approaches to cancer management are often ineffective due to adverse reactions, drug resistance, or inadequate target specificity of single anti-cancer agents. In contrast, a combinatorial approach with the application of two or more anti-cancer agents at their respective effective dosages can achieve a synergistic effect that boosts cytotoxicity to cancer cells. In cancer, aberrant apoptotic pathways allow cells that should be killed to survive with genetic abnormalities, leading to cancer progression. Mutations in apoptotic mechanism arising during the treatment of cancer through cancer progression can consequently lead to chemoresistance. Natural compound mixtures that are believed to have multiple specific targets with minimal acceptable side-effects are now of interest to many researchers due to their cytotoxic and chemosensitizing activities. Synergistic interactions within a drug mixture enhance the search for potential molecular targets in cancer cells. Nonetheless, biased/flawed scientific evidence from natural products can suggest false positive therapeutic benefits during drug screening. In this review, we have taken these factors into consideration when discussing the evidence for these compounds and their synergistic therapeutic benefits in cancer. While there is limited evidence for clinical efficacy for these mixtures, in vitro data suggest that these preparations merit further investigation, both in vitro and in vivo.

Global Mapping of Traditional Chinese Medicine into Bioactivity Space and Pathways Annotation Improves Mechanistic Understanding and Discovers Relationships between Therapeutic Action (Sub)classes

Traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) still needs more scientific rationale to be proven for it to be accepted further in the West. We are now in the position to propose computational hypotheses for the mode-of-actions (MOAs) of 45 TCM therapeutic action (sub)classes from in silico target prediction algorithms, whose target was later annotated with Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes pathway, and to discover the relationship between them by generating a hierarchical clustering. The results of 10,749 TCM compounds showed 183 enriched targets and 99 enriched pathways from Estimation Score ≤ 0 and ≥ 5% of compounds/targets in a (sub)class. The MOA of a (sub)class was established from supporting literature. Overall, the most frequent top three enriched targets/pathways were immune-related targets such as tyrosine-protein phosphatase nonreceptor type 2 (PTPN2) and digestive system such as mineral absorption. We found two major protein families, G-protein coupled receptor (GPCR), and protein kinase family contributed to the diversity of the bioactivity space, while digestive system was consistently annotated pathway motif, which agreed with the important treatment principle of TCM, “the foundation of acquired constitution” that includes spleen and stomach. In short, the TCM (sub)classes, in many cases share similar targets/pathways despite having different indications.

Internal transcribed spacer 2 barcode: a good tool for identifying Acanthopanacis cortex

Acanthopanacis cortex has been used in clinical applications for a long time. Considering some historical and geographical factors, Acanthopanacis cortex is easily confused with other herbs in medicine markets, thereby causing potential safety issues. In this study, we used the internal transcribed spacer 2 (ITS2) barcode to identify 69 samples belonging to six species, including Acanthopanacis cortex and its adulterants. The nearest distance, single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs), and neighbor-joining (NJ) tree methods were used to evaluate the identification ability of the ITS2 barcode. According to the kimura-2-parameter model, the intraspecific distance of Eleutherococcus nodiflorus ITS2 sequences ranged from 0 to 0.0132. The minimum interspecific distance between E. nodiflorus and E. giraldii was 0.0221, which was larger than the maximum intraspecific distance of E. nodiflorus. Three stable SNPs in ITS2 can be used to distinguish Acanthopanacis cortex and its closely related species. The NJ tree indicated that the Acanthopanacis cortex samples clustered into one clade, which can be distinguished clearly from the adulterants of this herb. A secondary structure of ITS2 provided another dimensionality to identify species. In conclusion, the ITS2 barcode effectively identifies Acanthopanacis cortex, and DNA barcoding is a convenient tool for medicine market supervision.

Atherosclerosis and tumor suppressor molecules (review)

Atherosclerosis, the major cause of heart attack and stroke, is a chronic inflammatory disease characterized by the formation of atherosclerotic plaque. Oxidized low-density lipoprotein through increased oxidative stress has been identified as one of the primary factors responsible for atherogenesis. Cell proliferation and death are key processes in the progression of atherosclerosis. The oxidative environment in areas of lipid accumulation is mainly created by the production of reactive oxygen species, which are assumed to mediate vascular tissue injury. Oxidative DNA damage and levels of DNA repair are reduced during dietary lipid lowering. The tumor suppressor molecules play a pivotal role in regulating cell proliferation, DNA repair and cell death, which are important processes in regulating the composition of atherosclerotic plaque. Accordingly, in this review, we discuss the fundamental role of tumor suppressor molecules in regulating atherogenesis. In particular, we discuss how tumor suppressor molecules are activated in the complex environment of atherosclerotic plaque, and regulate growth arrest, cell senescence and the apoptosis of vascular smooth muscle cells, which may protect against the progression of atherosclerosis. In addition, we discuss promising alternatives to the use of medications (such as statin) against atherosclerosis, namely diet, with the use of plant-derived supplements to modulate the expression and/or activity of tumor suppressor molecules. We also summarize the progress of research made on herbs with a focus on the modulatory roles of tumor suppressors, and on the molecular mechanisms underlying the prevention if atherosclerosis, supporting designs for further research in this field.

Protection against Cancer with Medicinal Herbs via Activation of Tumor Suppressor

Cancer remains a major cause of death, although research is ongoing for the development of more effective drugs. Some herbs have shown potential in preventing the occurrence and/or progression of cancer and other chronic diseases. They are being screened comprehensively to explore the possibility of development of feasible anticancer drugs. However, more information is required about the response to and the molecular target for specific herbs. It seems that there is a relationship between some medicinal herbs and tumor suppressor molecules which protect a cell from cancer. In this paper, we summarize the progress of recent research on herbs, with a particular focus on its anticancer role and molecular mechanisms underlying the cancer prevention property, supporting design for further research in this field.

Bioactive Compounds and Antioxidative, Antileukemic and Anti-MMPs Activity of Eleutherococcus Species Cultivated in Poland

The content of phenols (TPC), and the antioxidative, antileukemic and anti-MMPs properties of Eleutherococcus spp. cultivated in Poland are reported. The highest TPC was found in the spring leaves (20.3 – 37.2 mg/g). The spring leaves and roots of E. divaricatus had the strongest anti-DPPH activity (EC50 1.2 and 1.2 mg/mL), whereas the greatest ability of iron (II) chelating was shown by autumn leaves of E. setchuensis (EC50 0.3 mg/mL), and the ethanolic extract of E. gracilistylus roots showed the strongest lipid antiperoxidation activity (EC50 0.7 mg/mL). The highest number of apoptotic cells was observed in the Jurkat 45 cell line after treatment with the ethanolic extract of E. sessiliflorus roots (27%). Only the chloroform extracts of roots of E. gracilistylus and E. divaricatus showed the inhibitory activity against MMPs. Most of the studied species have a significant biological activity that is probably due to the presence of phenols. To the best of our knowledge, neither detailed phytochemical nor biological studies have been performed for most of the investigated species.

Reactive oxygen species-independent G1 arrest induced by evening primrose extract in Ehrlich ascites tumor cells

We previously demonstrated that evening primrose extract (EPE) induced apoptosis in Ehrlich ascites tumor cells (EATC), and this effect was specific on tumor cells. Furthermore, our results demonstrated that EPE exposure elicited a rapid increase in the activity of superoxide dismutase and intracellular peroxides levels. These changes caused translocation of Bax to mitochondria and a subsequent release of mitochondrial cytochrome c. However, no activation of caspase-3 was observed in EPE-treated EATC. On the other hand, apoptosis-inducing factor (AIF) was translocated from mitochondria to nuclei. The EPE-induced translocation of AIF was suppressed with the addition of catalase, suggesting that the rapid intracellular peroxide levels after addition of EPE triggers off induction of apoptosis, which is AIF-mediated and caspase-independent. In this study, we have shown that EPE elicited a dose-dependent accumulation of cells in the G1 phase and inhibited DNA synthesis. Our results also demonstrated that cell cycle arrest and inhibition of proliferation in EATC by EPE are associated with decreased Rb phosphorylation. Furthermore, inhibitions of Rb phosphorylation and DNA synthesis by EPE were not suppressed with the addition of catalase. The present study suggests that intracellular peroxides, which trigger off induction of apoptosis, are not the trigger of EPE-induced G1 arrest in cell cycle.

Characterization of B cell membrane receptors of polysaccharide isolated from the root of Acanthopanax koreanum

We investigated the immunomodulatory activity of polysaccharide isolated from the root of Acanthopanax koreanum (AK) at the cellular level. AK directly increased B cell proliferation and antibody production, but did not affect the expression of IL-2, IFN-gamma or IL-4 by T cells, or T cell proliferation in vitro. Since AK cannot penetrate cells due to its large molecular mass, B cell activation may be caused by the surface binding of AK to B cell-specific receptors. The role of TLR4 as an AK receptor was shown by the fact that AK activity in B cells from C3H/HeJ mice, which are known to have a defective Toll-like receptor (TLR)-4, was found to be reduced compared with that in control cells from C3H/HeN mice. AK activity was also reduced by antibodies blocking TLR2, TLR4, CD19 or CD79b, but not by an antibody blocking CD38, which suggests AK receptor profiling in B cells. Two main differences between AK and lipopolysaccharide (LPS) were observed. First, LPS activity was inhibited by antibodies to either TLR2 or TLR4, but not by antibodies to CD19, CD79b or CD38. Another was that LPS-induced B cell proliferation was inhibited by polymyxin B (PMB), a specific inhibitor of LPS, whereas AK activity was not affected. Taken together, our results demonstrate that AK directly activates B cells, but not T cells, and suggest that AK has a broader receptor profile than LPS in B cells.