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Park SJ, Kim KY, Baik MY, Koh YH. Sericulture and the edible-insect industry can help humanity survive: insects are more than just bugs, food, or feed. Food Sci Biotechnol 2022; 31:657-668. [PMID: 35646418 PMCID: PMC9133288 DOI: 10.1007/s10068-022-01090-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/19/2022] [Revised: 03/17/2022] [Accepted: 04/18/2022] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Abstract
The most serious threat which humans face is rapid global climate change, as the Earth shifts rapidly into a regime less hospitable to humans. To address the crisis caused by severe global climate change, it will be necessary to modify humankind's way of life. Because livestock production accounts for more than 14.5% of all greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, it is critical to reduce the dependence of humans on protein nutrients and calories obtained from livestock. One way to do so is to use insects as food. Compared with typical livestock, farming edible insects (or "mini-livestock") produce fewer GHG emissions, require less space and water, involve shorter life cycles, and have higher feed conversion rates. It has been recently reported that consumption of certain insects can prevent or treat human diseases. This review goes beyond entomophagy to entomotherapy and their application to the food industry.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Kee-Young Kim
- National Institute of Agricultural Science, Wanju-Gun, Jeollabuk-do Republic of Korea
| | - Moo-Yeol Baik
- Department of Food Science and Biotechnology, Institute of Life Science and Resources, Kyung Hee University, Yongin, Gyeonggi-do Republic of Korea
- Department of Food Innovation and Health, Kyung Hee University, Yongin, Gyeonggi-do Republic of Korea
| | - Young Ho Koh
- Ilsong Institute of Life Science, Hallym University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
- Department of Biomedical Gerontology, Hallym University Graduate School, Chuncheon, Gangwon-do Republic of Korea
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2
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Rissanen J, Helanterä H, Freitak D. Pathogen Prevalence Modulates Medication Behavior in Ant Formica fusca. FRONTIERS IN INSECT SCIENCE 2022; 2:870971. [PMID: 38468809 PMCID: PMC10926551 DOI: 10.3389/finsc.2022.870971] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/07/2022] [Accepted: 03/15/2022] [Indexed: 03/13/2024]
Abstract
Ants face unique challenges regarding pathogens, as the sociality which has allowed them to form large and complex colonies also raises the potential for transmission of disease within them. To cope with the threat of pathogens, ants have developed a variety of behavioral and physiological strategies. One of these strategies is self-medication, in which animals use biologically active compounds to combat pathogens in a way which would be harmful in the absence of infection. Formica fusca are the only ants that have previously been shown to successfully self-medicate against an active infection caused by a fungal pathogen by supplementing their diet with food containing hydrogen peroxide. Here, we build on that research by investigating how the prevalence of disease in colonies of F. fusca affects the strength of the self-medication response. We exposed either half of the workers of each colony or all of them to a fungal pathogen and offered them different combinations of diets. We see that workers of F. fusca engage in self-medication behavior even if exposed to a low lethal dose of a pathogen, and that the strength of that response is affected by the prevalence of the disease in the colonies. We also saw that the infection status of the individual foragers did not significantly affect their decision to forage on either control food or medicinal food as uninfected workers were also foraging on hydrogen peroxide food, which opens up the possibility of kin medication in partially infected colonies. Our results further affirm the ability of ants to self-medicate against fungal pathogens, shed new light on plasticity of self-medication and raise new questions to be investigated on the role self-medication has in social immunity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jason Rissanen
- Institute of Biology, University of Graz, Graz, Austria
- Tvärminne Zoological Station, University of Helsinki, Hanko, Finland
| | - Heikki Helanterä
- Tvärminne Zoological Station, University of Helsinki, Hanko, Finland
- Ecology and Genetics Research Unit, University of Oulu, Oulu, Finland
| | - Dalial Freitak
- Institute of Biology, University of Graz, Graz, Austria
- Tvärminne Zoological Station, University of Helsinki, Hanko, Finland
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3
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Offenberg J, Jensen IC, Hansen RR. Combatting plant diseases with ant chemicals: A review and meta‐analysis. J Appl Ecol 2021. [DOI: 10.1111/1365-2664.14017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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4
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Alagappan S, Chaliha M, Sultanbawa Y, Fuller S, Hoffman L, Netzel G, Weber N, Rychlik M, Cozzolino D, Smyth H, Olarte Mantilla S. Nutritional analysis, volatile composition, antimicrobial and antioxidant properties of Australian green ants (Oecophylla smaragdina). FUTURE FOODS 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.fufo.2020.100007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/15/2023] Open
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5
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Pepler MA, Hindra, Miller JS, Elliot MA, Balshine S. Tactic-specific antimicrobial activity suggests a parental care function for accessory glands in a marine toadfish. Proc Biol Sci 2021; 288:20202873. [PMID: 33726600 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2020.2873] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Males of some species possess extra reproductive organs called accessory glands which are outgrowths of the testes or sperm duct. These organs have a well-established role in reproduction; however, they also appear to have other important functions that are less understood. Here, we investigate the function of the highly complex accessory glands of a marine toadfish, Porichthys notatus, a fish with two reproductive male types: large care-providing 'guarder' males and small non-caring 'sneaker' males. While both male types have accessory glands, guarder male accessory glands are much larger relative to their body size. We show that accessory gland fluids strongly inhibit the growth of bacterial genera associated with unhealthy eggs and have no effect on the growth of strains isolated from healthy eggs. This antibacterial effect was particularly pronounced for extracts from guarder males. Furthermore, we demonstrate that both healthy and unhealthy plainfin midshipman eggs have diverse but distinct microbial communities that differ in their composition and abundance. The highly specific inhibitory capacity of accessory gland fluid on bacteria from unhealthy eggs was robust across a wide range of ecologically relevant temperatures and salinities. Collectively, these ecological and molecular observations suggest a care function for the accessory gland mediated by antimicrobial agents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Meghan A Pepler
- Department of Biology, and Institute for Infectious Disease Research, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada
| | - Hindra
- Department of Biology, and Institute for Infectious Disease Research, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada
| | - Jessica S Miller
- Aquatic Behavioural Ecology Laboratory, Department of Psychology, Neuroscience, & Behaviour, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada.,Department of Biology, University of Waterloo, Ontario, Canada
| | - Marie A Elliot
- Department of Biology, and Institute for Infectious Disease Research, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada
| | - Sigal Balshine
- Aquatic Behavioural Ecology Laboratory, Department of Psychology, Neuroscience, & Behaviour, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada
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6
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Penick CA, Halawani O, Pearson B, Mathews S, López-Uribe MM, Dunn RR, Smith AA. External immunity in ant societies: sociality and colony size do not predict investment in antimicrobials. ROYAL SOCIETY OPEN SCIENCE 2018; 5:171332. [PMID: 29515850 PMCID: PMC5830739 DOI: 10.1098/rsos.171332] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/07/2017] [Accepted: 01/04/2018] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Social insects live in dense groups with a high probability of disease transmission and have therefore faced strong pressures to develop defences against pathogens. For this reason, social insects have been hypothesized to invest in antimicrobial secretions as a mechanism of external immunity to prevent the spread of disease. However, empirical studies linking the evolution of sociality with increased investment in antimicrobials have been relatively few. Here we quantify the strength of antimicrobial secretions among 20 ant species that cover a broad spectrum of ant diversity and colony sizes. We extracted external compounds from ant workers to test whether they inhibited the growth of the bacterium Staphylococcus epidermidis. Because all ant species are highly social, we predicted that all species would exhibit some antimicrobial activity and that species that form the largest colonies would exhibit the strongest antimicrobial response. Our comparative approach revealed that strong surface antimicrobials are common to particular ant clades, but 40% of species exhibited no antimicrobial activity at all. We also found no correlation between antimicrobial activity and colony size. Rather than relying on antimicrobial secretions as external immunity to control pathogen spread, many ant species have probably developed alternative strategies to defend against disease pressure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Clint A. Penick
- The Biomimicry Center, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ 85287, USA
| | - Omar Halawani
- Research & Collections, North Carolina Museum of Natural Sciences, Raleigh, NC 27601, USA
- Department of Biological Sciences, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC 27695, USA
| | - Bria Pearson
- Research & Collections, North Carolina Museum of Natural Sciences, Raleigh, NC 27601, USA
- Department of Biological Sciences, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC 27695, USA
| | - Stephanie Mathews
- Biological Sciences, Campbell University, Buies Creek, NC 27506, USA
| | - Margarita M. López-Uribe
- Department of Entomology, Center for Pollinator Research, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16802, USA
| | - Robert R. Dunn
- Department of Applied Ecology, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC 27695, USA
- Center for Macroecology, Evolution and Climate, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, 2100Denmark
| | - Adrian A. Smith
- Research & Collections, North Carolina Museum of Natural Sciences, Raleigh, NC 27601, USA
- Department of Biological Sciences, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC 27695, USA
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7
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The presence of aggressive ants is associated with fewer insect visits to and altered microbe communities in coffee flowers. Basic Appl Ecol 2017. [DOI: 10.1016/j.baae.2017.02.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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8
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High density brood of Australian gall-inducing Acacia thrips aid in fungal control. Evol Ecol 2016. [DOI: 10.1007/s10682-016-9874-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
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9
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Connell RK, Pfennigwerth AA, Classen AT, Kwit C. Incorporating redispersal microsites into myrmecochory in eastern North American forests. Ecosphere 2016. [DOI: 10.1002/ecs2.1456] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- R. Kent Connell
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology University of Tennessee Knoxville Tennessee 37996 USA
- Division of Biology Kansas State University Manhattan Kansas 66506 USA
| | - Alix A. Pfennigwerth
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology University of Tennessee Knoxville Tennessee 37996 USA
- Department of Forestry, Wildlife and Fisheries University of Tennessee Knoxville Tennessee 37996 USA
| | - Aimee T. Classen
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology University of Tennessee Knoxville Tennessee 37996 USA
- The Natural History Museum of Denmark University of Copenhagen Østervoldgade 5‐7 DK‐1350 Copenhagen Denmark
| | - Charles Kwit
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology University of Tennessee Knoxville Tennessee 37996 USA
- Department of Forestry, Wildlife and Fisheries University of Tennessee Knoxville Tennessee 37996 USA
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10
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Tranter C, Fernández‐Marín H, Hughes WOH. Quality and quantity: transitions in antimicrobial gland use for parasite defense. Ecol Evol 2015; 5:5857-68. [PMID: 26811760 PMCID: PMC4717345 DOI: 10.1002/ece3.1827] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/23/2015] [Revised: 10/09/2015] [Accepted: 10/09/2015] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
Parasites are a major force in evolution, and understanding how host life history affects parasite pressure and investment in disease resistance is a general problem in evolutionary biology. The threat of disease may be especially strong in social animals, and ants have evolved the unique metapleural gland (MG), which in many taxa produce antimicrobial compounds that have been argued to have been a key to their ecological success. However, the importance of the MG in the disease resistance of individual ants across ant taxa has not been examined directly. We investigate experimentally the importance of the MG for disease resistance in the fungus-growing ants, a group in which there is interspecific variation in MG size and which has distinct transitions in life history. We find that more derived taxa rely more on the MG for disease resistance than more basal taxa and that there are a series of evolutionary transitions in the quality, quantity, and usage of the MG secretions, which correlate with transitions in life history. These shifts show how even small clades can exhibit substantial transitions in disease resistance investment, demonstrating that host-parasite relationships can be very dynamic and that targeted experimental, as well as large-scale, comparative studies can be valuable for identifying evolutionary transitions.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Hermógenes Fernández‐Marín
- Instituto de Investigaciones Científicas y Servicios de Alta TecnologíaEdificio 219, Panamá 5Ciudad del SaberClaytonPanama CityPO Box 0843‐01105Republic of Panama
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11
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Costa-Leonardo AM, Soares HX, Haifig I, Laranjo LT. Tarsomere and distal tibial glands: structure and potential roles in termites (Isoptera: Rhinotermitidae, Termitidae). ARTHROPOD STRUCTURE & DEVELOPMENT 2015; 44:426-432. [PMID: 26362010 DOI: 10.1016/j.asd.2015.08.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2015] [Revised: 08/28/2015] [Accepted: 08/28/2015] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
Social insects have numerous exocrine glands, but these organs are understudied in termites compared to hymenopterans. The tarsomere and distal tibial glands of the termites Heterotermes tenuis, Coptotermes gestroi and Silvestritermes euamignathus were investigated by scanning and transmission electron microscopy. Pore plates are visible in scanning micrographs on the distal tibial surfaces and on the ventral surface of the first and second tarsomeres of workers of H. tenuis and C. gestroi. In contrast, workers of S. euamignathus have isolated pores spread throughout the ventral surfaces of the first, second, and third tarsomeres and the distal tibia. In all three species each pore corresponds to the opening of a class-3 secretory unit, composed of one secretory and one canal cell. Clusters of class-3 glandular cells are arranged side by side underneath the cuticle. The main characteristics of these exocrine glands include their presence on all the legs and the electron-lucent secretion in the secretory cells. Possible functions of these glands are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ana Maria Costa-Leonardo
- Laboratório de Cupins, Departamento de Biologia, Instituto de Biociências, UNESP - Univ Estadual Paulista, Av. 24A, No. 1515, 13506-900, Rio Claro, SP, Brazil.
| | - Helena Xavier Soares
- Laboratório de Cupins, Departamento de Biologia, Instituto de Biociências, UNESP - Univ Estadual Paulista, Av. 24A, No. 1515, 13506-900, Rio Claro, SP, Brazil
| | - Ives Haifig
- Instituto de Ciências Agrárias, Universidade Federal de Uberlândia - UFU, Av. Goiás, No. 2000, 38500-000, Monte Carmelo, MG, Brazil
| | - Lara Teixeira Laranjo
- Laboratório de Cupins, Departamento de Biologia, Instituto de Biociências, UNESP - Univ Estadual Paulista, Av. 24A, No. 1515, 13506-900, Rio Claro, SP, Brazil
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12
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Grooming Behavior as a Mechanism of Insect Disease Defense. INSECTS 2013; 4:609-30. [PMID: 26462526 PMCID: PMC4553506 DOI: 10.3390/insects4040609] [Citation(s) in RCA: 83] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/26/2013] [Revised: 10/20/2013] [Accepted: 10/22/2013] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Grooming is a well-recognized, multipurpose, behavior in arthropods and vertebrates. In this paper, we review the literature to highlight the physical function, neurophysiological mechanisms, and role that grooming plays in insect defense against pathogenic infection. The intricate relationships between the physical, neurological and immunological mechanisms of grooming are discussed to illustrate the importance of this behavior when examining the ecology of insect-pathogen interactions.
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13
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Smith JJ, Herzig V, King GF, Alewood PF. The insecticidal potential of venom peptides. Cell Mol Life Sci 2013; 70:3665-93. [PMID: 23525661 PMCID: PMC11114029 DOI: 10.1007/s00018-013-1315-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 74] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/19/2012] [Revised: 02/27/2013] [Accepted: 02/28/2013] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Pest insect species are a burden to humans as they destroy crops and serve as vectors for a wide range of diseases including malaria and dengue. Chemical insecticides are currently the dominant approach for combating these pests. However, the de-registration of key classes of chemical insecticides due to their perceived ecological and human health risks in combination with the development of insecticide resistance in many pest insect populations has created an urgent need for improved methods of insect pest control. The venoms of arthropod predators such as spiders and scorpions are a promising source of novel insecticidal peptides that often have different modes of action to extant chemical insecticides. These peptides have been optimized via a prey-predator arms race spanning hundreds of millions of years to target specific types of insect ion channels and receptors. Here we review the current literature on insecticidal venom peptides, with a particular focus on their structural and pharmacological diversity, and discuss their potential for deployment as insecticides.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jennifer J. Smith
- Institute for Molecular Bioscience, The University of Queensland, St. Lucia, QLD 4072 Australia
| | - Volker Herzig
- Institute for Molecular Bioscience, The University of Queensland, St. Lucia, QLD 4072 Australia
| | - Glenn F. King
- Institute for Molecular Bioscience, The University of Queensland, St. Lucia, QLD 4072 Australia
| | - Paul F. Alewood
- Institute for Molecular Bioscience, The University of Queensland, St. Lucia, QLD 4072 Australia
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14
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The Evolutionary Innovation of Nutritional Symbioses in Leaf-Cutter Ants. INSECTS 2012; 3:41-61. [PMID: 26467948 PMCID: PMC4553616 DOI: 10.3390/insects3010041] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/03/2011] [Revised: 12/16/2011] [Accepted: 12/20/2011] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Fungus-growing ants gain access to nutrients stored in plant biomass through their association with a mutualistic fungus they grow for food. This 50 million-year-old obligate mutualism likely facilitated some of these species becoming dominant Neotropical herbivores that can achieve immense colony sizes. Recent culture-independent investigations have shed light on the conversion of plant biomass into nutrients within ant fungus gardens, revealing that this process involves both the fungal cultivar and a symbiotic community of bacteria including Enterobacter, Klebsiella, and Pantoea species. Moreover, the genome sequences of the leaf-cutter ants Atta cephalotes and Acromyrmex echinatior have provided key insights into how this symbiosis has shaped the evolution of these ants at a genetic level. Here we summarize the findings of recent research on the microbial community dynamics within fungus-growing ant fungus gardens and discuss their implications for this ancient symbiosis.
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15
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The genomic impact of 100 million years of social evolution in seven ant species. Trends Genet 2011; 28:14-21. [PMID: 21982512 DOI: 10.1016/j.tig.2011.08.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 92] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/13/2011] [Revised: 08/30/2011] [Accepted: 08/31/2011] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Ants (Hymenoptera, Formicidae) represent one of the most successful eusocial taxa in terms of both their geographic distribution and species number. The publication of seven ant genomes within the past year was a quantum leap for socio- and ant genomics. The diversity of social organization in ants makes them excellent model organisms to study the evolution of social systems. Comparing the ant genomes with those of the honeybee, a lineage that evolved eusociality independently from ants, and solitary insects suggests that there are significant differences in key aspects of genome organization between social and solitary insects, as well as among ant species. Altogether, these seven ant genomes open exciting new research avenues and opportunities for understanding the genetic basis and regulation of social species, and adaptive complex systems in general.
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16
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Graystock P, Hughes WOH. Disease resistance in a weaver ant, Polyrhachis dives, and the role of antibiotic-producing glands. Behav Ecol Sociobiol 2011. [DOI: 10.1007/s00265-011-1242-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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Abstract
The metapleural gland (MG) is a complex glandular structure unique to ants, suggesting a critical role in their origin and ecological success. We synthesize the current understanding of the adaptive function, morphology, evolutionary history, and chemical properties of the MG. Two functions of the MG, sanitation and chemical defence, have received the strongest empirical support; two additional possible functions, recognition odour and territorial marking, are less well supported. The design of the MG is unusual for insects; glandular secretions are stored in a rigid, non-compressible invagination of the integument and the secretion is thought to ooze out passively through the non-closable opening of the MG or is groomed off by the legs and applied to target surfaces. MG loss has occurred repeatedly among the ants, particularly in the subfamilies Formicinae and Myrmicinae, and the MG is more commonly absent in males than in workers. MG chemistry has been characterized mostly in derived ant lineages with unique biologies (e.g. leafcutter ants, fire ants), currently precluding any inferences about MG chemistry at the origin of the ants. A synthetic approach integrating functional morphology, phylogenetic transitions and chemical ecology of the MGs of both the derived and the unstudied early-branching (basal) ant lineages is needed to elucidate the evolutionary origin and diversification of the MG of ants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sze Huei Yek
- Section of Integrative Biology, University of Texas at Austin, USA.
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18
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Stow A, Beattie A. Chemical and genetic defenses against disease in insect societies. Brain Behav Immun 2008; 22:1009-1013. [PMID: 18472394 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbi.2008.03.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/05/2008] [Revised: 03/20/2008] [Accepted: 03/28/2008] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
The colonies of ants, bees, wasps and termites, the social insects, consist of large numbers of closely related individuals; circumstances ideal for contagious diseases. Antimicrobial assays of these animals have demonstrated a wide variety of chemical defenses against both bacteria and fungi that can be broadly classified as either external antiseptic compounds or internal immune molecules. Reducing the disease risks inherent in colonies of social insects is also achieved by behaviors, such as multiple mating or dispersal, that lower genetic relatedness both within- and among colonies. The interactions between social insects and their pathogens are complex, as illustrated by some ants that require antimicrobial and behavioral defenses against highly specialized fungi, such as those in the genus Cordyceps that attack larvae and adults and species in the genus Escovopsis that attack their food supplies. Studies of these defenses, especially in ants, have revealed remarkably sophisticated immune systems, including peptides induced by, and specific to, individual bacterial strains. The latter may be the result of the recruitment by the ants of antibiotic-producing bacteria but the extent of such three-way interactions remains unknown. There is strong experimental evidence that the evolution of sociality required dramatic increases in antimicrobial defenses and that microbes have been powerful selective agents. The antimicrobial chemicals and the insect-killing fungi may be useful in medicine and agriculture, respectively.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adam Stow
- Department of Biological Sciences, Macquarie University, Sydney, NSW 2109, Australia.
| | - Andrew Beattie
- Department of Biological Sciences, Macquarie University, Sydney, NSW 2109, Australia
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Hughes WOH, Pagliarini R, Madsen HB, Dijkstra MB, Boomsma JJ. Antimicrobial defense shows an abrupt evolutionary transition in the fungus-growing ants. Evolution 2008; 62:1252-7. [PMID: 18266984 DOI: 10.1111/j.1558-5646.2008.00347.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Understanding the relative evolutionary importance of parasites to different host taxa is problematic because the expression of disease and resistance are often confounded by factors such as host age and condition. The antibiotic-producing metapleural glands of ants are a potentially useful exception to this rule because they are a key first-line defense that are fixed in size in adults. Here we conduct a comparative analysis of the size of the gland reservoir across the fungus-growing ants (tribe Attini). Most attines have singly mated queens, but in two derived genera, the leaf-cutting ants, the queens are multiply mated, which is hypothesized to have evolved to improve colony-level disease resistance. We found that, relative to body size, the gland reservoirs of most attines are similar in size but that those of the leaf-cutting ants are significantly larger. In contrast, the size of the reservoir did not relate with the evolutionary transition from lower to higher attines and correlated at most only slightly with colony size. The results thus suggest that the relationship between leaf-cutting ants and their parasites is distinctly different from that for other attine ants, in accord with the hypothesis that multiple mating by queens evolved to improve colony-level disease resistance.
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Affiliation(s)
- William O H Hughes
- Institute of Integrative and Comparative Biology, University of Leeds, Leeds, UK.
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Inagaki H, Akagi M, Imai HT, Taylor RW, Kubo T. Molecular cloning and biological characterization of novel antimicrobial peptides, pilosulin 3 and pilosulin 4, from a species of the Australian ant genus Myrmecia. Arch Biochem Biophys 2004; 428:170-8. [PMID: 15246874 DOI: 10.1016/j.abb.2004.05.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/09/2004] [Revised: 05/17/2004] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Venom of an Australian ant species of the Myrmecia pilosula species complex (mss. name Myrmecia banksi Taylor) contains two major allergenic peptides, pilosulin 1 and pilosulin 2. To obtain novel cDNA clones that encode the pilosulin-related bioactive peptides, mRNA of another Myrmecia species was subjected to RT-PCR in which the forward primer corresponds to a nucleotide sequence in the leader sequences of pilosulin 1 and pilosulin 2. As a result, we isolated cDNA clones encoding the novel antimicrobial peptides pilosulin 3 and pilosulin 4. The nucleotide and the amino acid sequences of all four pilosulins have high homology except for the mature peptide coding regions. Synthetic pilosulin 3 and pilosulin 4 peptides displayed antimicrobial activity with histamine-releasing and low hemolytic activities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hidetoshi Inagaki
- Neuroscience Research Institute, National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology (AIST), 1-1-1 Higashi, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-8566, Japan.
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Johnson RN, Agapow PM, Crozier RH. A tree island approach to inferring phylogeny in the ant subfamily Formicinae, with especial reference to the evolution of weaving. Mol Phylogenet Evol 2003; 29:317-30. [PMID: 13678687 DOI: 10.1016/s1055-7903(03)00114-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
The ant subfamily Formicinae is a large assemblage (2458 species (J. Nat. Hist. 29 (1995) 1037), including species that weave leaf nests together with larval silk and in which the metapleural gland-the ancestrally defining ant character-has been secondarily lost. We used sequences from two mitochondrial genes (cytochrome b and cytochrome oxidase 2) from 18 formicine and 4 outgroup taxa to derive a robust phylogeny, employing a search for tree islands using 10000 randomly constructed trees as starting points and deriving a maximum likelihood consensus tree from the ML tree and those not significantly different from it. Non-parametric bootstrapping showed that the ML consensus tree fit the data significantly better than three scenarios based on morphology, with that of Bolton (Identification Guide to the Ant Genera of the World, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA) being the best among these alternative trees. Trait mapping showed that weaving had arisen at least four times and possibly been lost once. A maximum likelihood analysis showed that loss of the metapleural gland is significantly associated with the weaver life-pattern. The graph of the frequencies with which trees were discovered versus their likelihood indicates that trees with high likelihoods have much larger basins of attraction than those with lower likelihoods. While this result indicates that single searches are more likely to find high- than low-likelihood tree islands, it also indicates that searching only for the single best tree may lose important information.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rebecca N Johnson
- Department of Genetics and Evolution, La Trobe University, Bundoora, Vic 3083, Australia
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22
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Mackintosh JA, Flood JA, Veal DA, Beattie AJ. Increase in levels of microbiota recoverable from male and larvalMyrmecia gulosa(Fabricius) (Hymenoptera: Formicidae) following segregation from worker ants. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2002. [DOI: 10.1046/j.1440-6055.1999.00092.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- JA Mackintosh
- 1 School of Biological Sciences, Macquarie University, NSW 2109, Australia (
| | - JA Flood
- 1 School of Biological Sciences, Macquarie University, NSW 2109, Australia (
| | - DA Veal
- 1 School of Biological Sciences, Macquarie University, NSW 2109, Australia (
| | - AJ Beattie
- 1 School of Biological Sciences, Macquarie University, NSW 2109, Australia (
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Currie CR. A community of ants, fungi, and bacteria: a multilateral approach to studying symbiosis. Annu Rev Microbiol 2002; 55:357-80. [PMID: 11544360 DOI: 10.1146/annurev.micro.55.1.357] [Citation(s) in RCA: 158] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
The ancient and highly evolved mutualism between fungus-growing ants and their fungi is a textbook example of symbiosis. The ants carefully tend the fungus, which serves as their main food source, and traditionally are believed to be so successful at fungal cultivation that they are able to maintain the fungus free of microbial pathogens. This assumption is surprising in light of theories on the evolution of parasitism, especially for those species of ants that have been clonally propagating their cultivars for millions of years. Recent work has established that, as theoretically predicted, the gardens of fungus-growing ants are host to a specialized, virulent, and highly evolved fungal pathogen in the genus Escovopsis. In addition, the ants have evolved a mutualistic association with filamentous bacteria (actinomycetes) that produce antibiotics that suppress the growth of Escovopsis. Thus, the attine symbiosis appears to be a coevolutionary "arms race" between the garden parasite Escovopsis on the one hand and the ant-fungus-actinomycete tripartite mutualism on the other. These recent findings indicate that microbes may be key components in the regulation of other symbiotic associations between higher organisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- C R Currie
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, 2041 Haworth Hall, University of Kansas, Lawrence, Kansas 66045-7534, USA.
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Gusmão LGD, Caetano FH, Nakano O. Ultramorphology of the metapleural gland in three species of Atta (Hymenoptera, Formicidae). IHERINGIA. SERIE ZOOLOGIA 2001. [DOI: 10.1590/s0073-47212001000200003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
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Orivel J, Redeker V, Le Caer JP, Krier F, Revol-Junelles AM, Longeon A, Chaffotte A, Dejean A, Rossier J. Ponericins, new antibacterial and insecticidal peptides from the venom of the ant Pachycondyla goeldii. J Biol Chem 2001; 276:17823-9. [PMID: 11279030 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m100216200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 146] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
The antimicrobial, insecticidal, and hemolytic properties of peptides isolated from the venom of the predatory ant Pachycondyla goeldii, a member of the subfamily Ponerinae, were investigated. Fifteen novel peptides, named ponericins, exhibiting antibacterial and insecticidal properties were purified, and their amino acid sequences were characterized. According to their primary structure similarities, they can be classified into three families: ponericin G, W, and L. Ponericins share high sequence similarities with known peptides: ponericins G with cecropin-like peptides, ponericins W with gaegurins and melittin, and ponericins L with dermaseptins. Ten peptides were synthesized for further analysis. Their antimicrobial activities against Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria strains were analyzed together with their insecticidal activities against cricket larvae and their hemolytic activities. Interestingly, within each of the three families, several peptides present differences in their biological activities. The comparison of the structural features of ponericins with those of well-studied peptides suggests that the ponericins may adopt an amphipathic alpha-helical structure in polar environments, such as cell membranes. In the venom, the estimated peptide concentrations appear to be compatible with an antibacterial activity in vivo. This suggests that in the ant colony, the peptides exhibit a defensive role against microbial pathogens arising from prey introduction and/or ingestion.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Orivel
- Laboratoire d'Ethologie Expérimentale et Comparée, CNRS ESA 7025, Université Paris 13, avenue JB Clément, 93430 Villetaneuse, France
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27
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Demain AL, Fang A. The natural functions of secondary metabolites. ADVANCES IN BIOCHEMICAL ENGINEERING/BIOTECHNOLOGY 2001; 69:1-39. [PMID: 11036689 DOI: 10.1007/3-540-44964-7_1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 180] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/03/2022]
Abstract
Secondary metabolites, including antibiotics, are produced in nature and serve survival functions for the organisms producing them. The antibiotics are a heterogeneous group, the functions of some being related to and others being unrelated to their antimicrobial activities. Secondary metabolites serve: (i) as competitive weapons used against other bacteria, fungi, amoebae, plants, insects, and large animals; (ii) as metal transporting agents; (iii) as agents of symbiosis between microbes and plants, nematodes, insects, and higher animals; (iv) as sexual hormones; and (v) as differentiation effectors. Although antibiotics are not obligatory for sporulation, some secondary metabolites (including antibiotics) stimulate spore formation and inhibit or stimulate germination. Formation of secondary metabolites and spores are regulated by similar factors. This similarity could insure secondary metabolite production during sporulation. Thus the secondary metabolite can: (i) slow down germination of spores until a less competitive environment and more favorable conditions for growth exist; (ii) protect the dormant or initiated spore from consumption by amoebae; or (iii) cleanse the immediate environment of competing microorganisms during germination.
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Affiliation(s)
- A L Demain
- Department of Biology, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge 02139, USA.
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Abstract
Although social insect colonies are most easily conceptualized as consisting of a single, once-mated queen and her worker progeny, the number of queens per colony and the number of times queens mate varies broadly in ants and other social insects. Various hypotheses have been suggested for the resulting range of breeding systems and social organizations, respectively; one set of hypotheses relating to both queen number and mate number at the same time is a need for genetic variation, especially in relation to disease resistance. We here carry out a comparative analysis using phylogenetic information and, contrary to one non-phylogenetic previous study, we find that polyandry and polygyny are not significantly associated. However, the level of relatedness within colonies, a quantity affected by both polyandry and polygyny, is significantly associated with parasite loads: species with colonies with low relatedness levels have lower parasite loads. Given that, under the variance-reduction principle, selection on queens for mating frequency ought to continue even in polygynous colonies, we suggest that while parasite loads indeed seem to correlate with intra-colony genetic variability, the relationship to polyandry and polygyny may be complex and requires considerably more experimental investigation.
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Mackintosh JA, Trimble JE, Jones MK, Karuso PH, Beattie AJ, Veal DA. Antimicrobial mode of action of secretions from the metapleural gland of Myrmecia gulosa (Australian bull ant). Can J Microbiol 1995; 41:136-44. [PMID: 7720011 DOI: 10.1139/m95-018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
Abstract
Secretions from exocrine metapleural glands of Myrmecia gulosa (Australian bull ant) exhibit broad-spectrum antimicrobial activity. Treatment of the yeast Candida albicans with metapleural secretion resulted in the rapid and total leakage of K+ ions from cells within 10 min. Ultrastructural analysis of the bacteria Bacillus cereus, Escherichia coli, and Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and cells and protoplasts of Candida albicans demonstrated gross damage of the cell membrane and aggregation of the cytoplasmic matrix of treated cells. Degradation of membrane-bound organelles was also observed in Candida albicans. The antimicrobially active components of metapleural secretions were nonpolar and interacted with the phospholipid bilayer, causing damage to the structural integrity of liposomes and the release of carboxyfluorescein. The data suggest that the antimicrobial agents in metapleural secretion act primarily by disrupting the structure and function of the phospholipid bilayer of the cytoplasmic membrane.
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Affiliation(s)
- J A Mackintosh
- School of Biological Sciences, Macquarie University, N.S.W., Australia
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Davison AD, Csellner H, Karuso P, Veal DA. Synergistic growth of two members from a mixed microbial consortium growing on biphenyl. FEMS Microbiol Ecol 1994. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1574-6941.1994.tb00100.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
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