Influence of urogenital infections on sperm functions

Detection and evaluation of different morphological forms of Mycoplasma hominis in human semen

Recently discovered microcolonial forms of Mycoplasma hominis (M. hominis) and their impact on human spermatogenesis are studied. The spermatozoa of 125 fertile men (sperm donors; from Reprobank [Reproductive Tissue Bank, Moscow, Russia]) and of 93 patients with fertility problems (from the Federal State Budgetary Institution "Research Centre for Medical Genetics [RCMG]", Moscow, Russia) were used. Classical colonies of M. hominis and microcolonies were detected by molecular biological methods, culture of bacteria, and transmission electron microscopy. The unique structure of microcolonial cells, in which the cytoplasmic cylinder is surrounded by concentric electron-dense and electron-light layers with a periodicity of 12-14 nm, and the ability of microcolonial cells to attach to spermatozoa are shown. In patients with lower sperm quality, microcolonies of M. hominis were detected 2.5 times more frequently than classical colonies. The detection of microcolonies in the ejaculate and the frequent isolation of microcolonies from sperm samples of patients with fertility problems suggest that microcolonial cells may be one cause of infertility.

Characterization of boar semen microbiome and association with sperm quality parameters

Elevated levels of bacteria within fresh extended boar semen are associated with decreased sperm longevity, therefore reducing the fertility of a semen dose. The objective of this study was to characterize the bacterial communities using 16S rRNA sequencing in freshly extended boar semen samples and relate the prevalence and diversity of the microbial population to sperm quality parameters 1) between studs, 2) between pooled and single-sire doses, and 3) over a 5-day period. Eight single-sire (n = 4 per stud) and eight pooled (n = 4 per stud) non-frozen extended semen doses were obtained from two boar studs (A and B). Pooled doses were the composite of the boar's ejaculates used in single-sire doses. Doses were subsampled for 5 d post-collection. Ten negative controls of each pooled dose (n = 2) and single-sire dose (n = 8) remained sealed until the last day. Microbiome analysis was achieved by examining the V4 hypervariable region of the 16S rRNA gene of flash-frozen samples. Two evaluators determined the average sperm motility and agglutination (0: no adhesion to 3: >50% adhesion) by averaging their estimates together at 10 random locations per slide. Stud A had greater sperm agglutination (1.6 vs. 1.0 ± 0.1; P < 0.01) than stud B. Sperm motility decreased over the 5-day period (P < 0.01) and tended (P = 0.09) to be greater in stud B than A (67.4% vs. 61.5% ± 0.02%). Compared with stud A, stud B had a greater relative abundance of Proteobacteria (60.0% vs. 47.2% ± 1.5%; P < 0.01) and a lower relative abundance of Firmicutes (22.5% vs. 31.9% ± 1.4%; P < 0.01). Moreover, stud A had a greater relative abundance of Bacteroidetes (6.3% vs. 5.3% ± 0.4%; P < 0.01) and Actinobacteria (11.5% vs. 10.1% ± 0.5%; P = 0.05) than stud B. Differences were found in alpha diversity for both Chao1 (P < 0.01) and Shannon (P < 0.01) diversity indexes among days 2, 3, 4, and 5 post-collection to day 1. For beta diversity, unweighted UniFrac metric on days 2, 3, 4, and 5 post-collection differed from those on day 1 (P < 0.01). There were significant correlations between sperm motility and relative abundance of Prevotella (r = -0.29), Ruminococcus (r = -0.24), and Bacteroides (r = -0.32). Additionally, there were significant correlations between sperm motility and Chao1 (r = -0.50) and Shannon's index (r = -0.36). These results demonstrate that differences in bacterial communities over time and between boar studs can be associated with variation in sperm quality.

Core Microbiome of Slovak Holstein Friesian Breeding Bulls' Semen

Simple Summary

The aim of this study was to characterize the bacterial profile of semen collected from Holstein Friesian breeding bulls via a high-throughput sequencing approach for a 16S rRNA gene variability analysis. A total of 55 fresh semen samples of sexually mature breeding bulls were used in the study. They were gathered from Holstein Friesian breeding bulls at Slovak Biological Services in Nitra, Slovak Republic. To amplify the V4 region of the 16S rRNA bacterial gene, universal primers 515F and 806R enhanced by a 6 bp barcode identification sequence were used. The 16S rRNA high-throughput sequencing strategy was used. Two microbial clusters were identified among the analyzed samples—the first cluster was based on Actinobacteria and Firmicutes, while the second cluster contained a high prevalence of Fusobacteria.

Abstract

Bacterial contamination of semen is an important factor connected to the health status of bulls that may significantly affect semen quality for artificial insemination. Moreover, some important bovine diseases may be transmitted through semen. Up to now, only a very limited number of complex studies describing the semen microbiome of bulls have been published, as many bacteria are hard to cultivate using traditional techniques. The 16S rRNA high-throughput sequencing strategy allows for the reliable identification of bacterial profiles of bovine semen together with the detection of noncultivable bacterial species. Fresh samples from Holstein Friesian breeding bulls (n = 55) were examined for the natural variability in the present bacteria. Semen doses were selected randomly from Slovak Biological Services in Nitra, Slovak Republic. The most predominant phyla within the whole dataset were Firmicutes (31%), Proteobacteria (22%), Fusobacteria (18%), Actinobacteria (13%) and Bacteroidetes (12%). Samples of semen were divided into two separate clusters according to their microbiome compositions using a cording partition around a medoids analysis. Microbiomes of the first cluster (CL1) of samples (n = 20) were based on Actinobacteria (CL1 average = 25%; CL = 28%) and Firmicutes (CL1 = 38%; CL2 = 27%), while the second cluster (CL2; n = 35) contained samples characterized by a high prevalence of Fusobacteria (CL1 = 4%; CL2 = 26%). Some important indicator microbial groups were differentially distributed between the clusters.

Association of Semen Bacteriological Profile with Infertility:- A Cross-Sectional Study in a Tertiary Care Center

Context:

Infections are an important cause of male infertility. The specific effects of infections on various semen parameters remain unexplored, especially within the Indian subcontinent.

Aim:

The aim of the study was to determine the bacteriologic profile of semen, and its effect on semen parameters, with particular emphasis given to Ureaplasma urealyticum and Mycoplasma hominis tested by semen polymerase chain reaction (PCR).

Study Setting and Design:

The research was a cross-sectionl analaytical study conducted in a tertiary care center in South India from March 2018 to November 2019, on 48 male partners of couples presenting with infertility.

Methodology:

After obtaining informed consent from the study participants, semen collection was done. The sample was subjected to standard semen analysis according to the WHO 2010 Manual, followed by bacteriological testing using routine culture methods. In addition, real-time PCR was done to test for U. urealyticum and M. hominis.

Statistical Analysis:

Demographic data, semen analysis parameters, bacteriological culture findings, and real-time PCR results were compared and analyzed using the software IBM^® SPSS 19.0.

Results:

A significant difference in viscosity of semen, which was higher in the samples that were positive for real-time PCR of M. hominis, was found. Other than this, no other parameter had a statistically significant difference between culture or real-time PCR positive samples and negative samples.

Conclusion:

Our study, though limited by a small sample size, highlights the role played by seminal infections in the context of male infertility. Larger scale prospective studies in this area would be invaluable in deciding the management plans of male factor infertility.

Bacterial communities in bovine ejaculates and their impact on the semen quality

Although bacterial contamination of ejaculates may cause difficulties in cattle reproduction, standard protocols for a routine microbiological analysis of bovine semen are still missing. Understanding of the mechanisms of bacterial damage to spermatozoa may contribute to the prevention and management of bacteriospermia in the future. Therefore, this study was designed to investigate bacterial profiles of fresh bovine ejaculates (n = 30), while at the same time we focused on assessing the relationships between bacteriospermia and selected sperm quality parameters as well as an array of oxidative stress and inflammatory markers. The samples were divided into three quality groups according to the sperm motility: Excellent (EX) - over 90% > Good (GO) - between 89% and 80% > Moderate (MO) - under 80%. The results showed a significant increase in reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation in the GO group when compared to the EX group. In the MO group, a deterioration of almost all quality parameters was observed when compared to the EX group. In particular, sperm motility, mitochondrial membrane potential, ROS production and IL-6 concentration exhibited a significant decline. Pearson correlation analysis revealed positive associations among bacterial load and the presence of leukocytes in semen (r = 0.965), malondialdehyde concentration (r = 0.816) and DNA fragmentation (r = 0.784). MALDI-TOF MS Biotyper analysis showed a prevalence of the Staphylococcus genus. The quantification of bacterial colonies revealed a significantly increased (P < 0.01) bacterial load in the MO group when compared with the EX as well as the GO group. Overall, our results suggest that sperm quality may be affected by both, bacterial composition, and bacterial load. It appears that an increased presence of bacterial species triggers the immune response, causes oxidative stress, and thereby contributes to sperm structural alterations while diminishing their fertilization ability.Abbreviations: EX: Excellent; GO: Good; MO: Moderate; MOT: Motility; ROS: Reactive Oxygen Species; MMP: Mitochondrial Membrane Potential; IL-1: Interleukin 1; IL-6: Interleukin 6; IL-8: Interleukin 8; IL-12: Interleukin 12; CRP: C-reactive protein; DNA: Deoxyribonucleic acid; MALDI-TOF MS: Matrix-assisted Laser Desorption/Ionization-Time of Flight Mass Spectrometry; LPO: Lipid peroxidation; CFU: Colony-forming units MDA: Malondialdehyde; CASA: Computer-assisted Sperm Analysis; WS: Working solution; RIPA: Radio-immunoprecipitation assay; TBARS: Thiobarbituric Acid Reactive Substances; BHB: D-β-hydroxybutyrate.

The role of infections and leukocytes in male infertility

Declining birth rates are one of the problems facing society today. Male counterparts are responsible for about half of the infertility cases, and genitourinary tract infections may play a contributing role in approximately 15% of male infertility cases. Leukocytospermia is an established indicator of infection in the male urogenital tract, although other microorganisms such as bacteria and virus may also be contributors to the etiology of male infertility. The pathophysiology of these infectious agents may be initiated by a local inflammatory reaction resulting in an increase in reactive oxygen species (ROS). This results in testicular injury, thereby affecting sperm morphology, sperm motility, sperm viability and elevation of the seminal leukocyte as a result of the genital tract infection. The infectious and inflammatory changes can result in male infertility. It is proposed that high concentrations of seminal leukocyte and infectious agents may affect sperm function resulting in clumping of motile spermatozoa, decreasing acrosomal functionality and also causing alterations in sperm morphology. However, the literature has poorly clarified the role of infection in male infertility, provoking further debate and research on this topic.

Antimicrobial Resistance as a Problem for the Quality of Boar Semen

The aim of the study was to determine whether the bacteria from the environment and from the mucous membrane of the boar prepuce have antimicrobial resistance and whether the result obtained is similar/same to the bacteria that can be found in native boar semen. The study addresses the problem of the presence of primarily resistant bacterial strains in the boar sperm, which, due to their reduced sensitivity, cannot be suppressed by antibiotics used in the semen dilution agent, as well as to emphasize the importance of microbiological monitoring of the boar mucous membranes and ambient surfaces before and during their exploitation. Such an examination could contribute to the interchangeable design of the dilution agent for the boar semen relative to the antibiotic content.Resistant strains of bacteria from prepuce swabs and swabs taken from the facility, as well as from native boar semen were isolated. The presence of these bacteria affected the quality of the semen. In conclusion, it should be pointed out that bacterial monitoring of the prepuce and surface of the facility can indicate possible problems related to the quality of semen, and that the design of the dilution agent for boar semen should be adjusted to the established resistance of isolated bacteria.

Immunological Tolerance, Pregnancy, and Preeclampsia: The Roles of Semen Microbes and the Father

Although it is widely considered, in many cases, to involve two separable stages (poor placentation followed by oxidative stress/inflammation), the precise originating causes of preeclampsia (PE) remain elusive. We have previously brought together some of the considerable evidence that a (dormant) microbial component is commonly a significant part of its etiology. However, apart from recognizing, consistent with this view, that the many inflammatory markers of PE are also increased in infection, we had little to say about immunity, whether innate or adaptive. In addition, we focused on the gut, oral and female urinary tract microbiomes as the main sources of the infection. We here marshall further evidence for an infectious component in PE, focusing on the immunological tolerance characteristic of pregnancy, and the well-established fact that increased exposure to the father's semen assists this immunological tolerance. As well as these benefits, however, semen is not sterile, microbial tolerance mechanisms may exist, and we also review the evidence that semen may be responsible for inoculating the developing conceptus (and maybe the placenta) with microbes, not all of which are benign. It is suggested that when they are not, this may be a significant cause of PE. A variety of epidemiological and other evidence is entirely consistent with this, not least correlations between semen infection, infertility and PE. Our view also leads to a series of other, testable predictions. Overall, we argue for a significant paternal role in the development of PE through microbial infection of the mother via insemination.

Semen culture and the assessment of genitourinary tract infections

The male factor contributes approximately 50% to infertility-related cases in couples with an estimated 12%–35% of these cases attributable to male genital tract infections. Depending on the nature of the infection, testicular sperm production, sperm transport, and sperm function can be compromised. Yet, infections are potentially treatable causes of infertility. Male genital tract infections are increasingly difficult to detect. Moreover, they often remain asymptomatic (“silent”) with the result that they are then passed on to the relevant sexual partner leading to fertilization and pregnancy failure as well as illness of the offspring. With the worldwide increasing problem of antibiotic resistance of pathogens, proper diagnosis and therapy of the patient is important. This testing, however, should include not only aerobic microbes but also anaerobic as these can be found in almost all ejaculates with about 71% being potentially pathogenic. Therefore, in cases of any indication of a male genital tract infection, a semen culture should be carried out, particularly in patients with questionable semen quality. Globally, an estimate of 340 million new infections with sexually transmitted pathogens is recorded annually. Among these, the most prevalent pathogens including Chlamydia trachomatis, Ureaplasma urealyticum, Neisseria gonorrhoeae, and Mycoplasma hominis. Escherichia coli are considered the most common nonsexually transmitted urogenital tract microbes. These pathogens cause epididymitis, epididymo-orchitis, or prostatitis and contribute to increased seminal leukocyte concentrations.

Bacteriospermia and Its Impact on Basic Semen Parameters among Infertile Men

Introduction. Semen analysis is considered as the surrogate marker for male fecundity while assessing infertile men. There are several reasons for altered semen quality and bacteriospermia could be one among them. Thereby the aim of our work is to study the semen culture and its impact on semen parameters among infertile men. Materials and Methods. Semen samples were collected from men attending infertility clinic. Semen parameters were analysed based on WHO guidelines. Also, samples were subjected to culture using standard bacteriological techniques. Results. A total of 85 samples were collected. A number of 47 (55.30%) had normal sperm count, 37 (43.50%) had oligozoospermia, and one (1.17%) had azoospermia. Teratozoospermia was the most common abnormality observed (81.17%) followed by asthenozoospermia (28.23%). The prevalence of bacteriospermia was 35.3%. Enterococcus faecalis (30%) was the most common organism isolated followed by Coagulase negative Staphylococcus (23.33%), Staphylococcus aureus (20%), and E. coli (10%). Other less frequently isolated organisms were Klebsiella pneumoniae (6.66%), Proteus sp. (6.66%), and Citrobacter sp. (3.33%). Conclusion. The presence of asymptomatic bacteriospermia did not correlate with abnormal semen parameters.

Can apoptosis and necrosis coexist in ejaculated human spermatozoa during in vitro semen bacterial infection?

PURPOSE

To evaluate whether ejaculated human spermatozoa undergo complete apoptosis or necrosis during experimental semen bacterial infection in vitro.

METHODS

Apoptotic markers, including mitochondrial transmembrane potential (ΔΨm), phosphatidylserine (PS) externalization, and DNA fragmentation, have been detected simultaneously in ejaculated human sperm after their incubation with a known pathogenic (Escherichia coli), as well as with conditionally pathogenic bacterial strains (Staphylococcus haemolyticus, Bacteroides ureolyticus) and/or leukocytes. The ΔΨm and translocation of PS was evaluated using the JC-1 and Annexin V binding tests, respectively. A modified TUNEL assay with additional staining for sperm viability was used to detect the DNA fragmentation level.

RESULTS

The exposure of ejaculated spermatozoa to bacterial strains was associated with a simultaneous decrease in the percentage of sperm with normal ΔΨm and an increase in the proportion of Annexin V-positive sperm. Additionally, in the presence of S. haemolyticus, B. ureolyticus and/or leukocytes, a significant increase in the percentage of live TUNEL-positive (apoptotic) as well as dead TUNEL-positive (necrotic) sperm cells was also observed.

CONCLUSIONS

The cellular death observed in spermatozoa in the presence of inflammatory mediators may be due to both apoptosis and necrosis. Here, we demonstrate for the first time that direct contact of conditionally pathogenic bacteria with ejaculated human sperm may play an even greater role in the promotion of apoptosis than in case of some pathogenic bacterial strains. These findings suggest that significant bacteriospermia and leukocytospermia may be direct causes of subfertility or additional negative factors worsening the prognosis of fertility in natural and assisted procreation.

Alternatives to antibiotics in semen extenders: a review

Antibiotics are added to semen extenders to be used for artificial insemination (AI) in livestock breeding to control bacterial contamination in semen arising during collection and processing. The antibiotics to be added and their concentrations for semen for international trade are specified by government directives. Since the animal production industry uses large quantities of semen for artificial insemination, large amounts of antibiotics are currently used in semen extenders. Possible alternatives to antibiotics are discussed, including physical removal of the bacteria during semen processing, as well as the development of novel antimicrobials. Colloid centrifugation, particularly Single Layer Centrifugation, when carried out with a strict aseptic technique, offers a feasible method for reducing bacterial contamination in semen and is a practical method for semen processing laboratories to adopt. However, none of these alternatives to antibiotics should replace strict attention to hygiene during semen collection and handling.

Effects of Enterobacter cloacae on boar sperm quality during liquid storage at 17°C

Contamination of fresh and extended boar sperm often occurs in farms and artificial insemination (AI) centres during semen collection, processing and storage. The presence of bacteria produces detrimental effects on boar sperm quality, which may cause economic losses in reproductive centres. The present study has evaluated for the first time how the presence of Enterobacter cloacae affects the preservation of boar spermatozoa in liquid storage at 15-17 °C for an 11-day period. With this purpose, extended semen samples from seven healthy post-pubertal boars were artificially contaminated with different sperm:bacterium ratios (2:1; 1:1; 1:5 and 1:10) of E. cloacae. The 1:0 ratio (non-inoculated) served as a negative control. The most infective ratios (i.e. 1:5 and 1:10) significantly damaged sperm motility and membrane integrity, increased sperm agglutination, and decreased the osmotic resistance of spermatozoa. In contrast, the negative impact that the lowest bacterial concentration (2:1) had on boar sperm quality was clearly lower. In addition, other parameters such as pH were also more affected at the highest infective ratios (i.e. 1:5 and 1:10), despite no damage being observed on sperm morphology. In conclusion, the present work shows that damage inflicted by the presence of E. cloacae in boar sperm during liquid storage at 15-17 °C compromises the longevity and fertilising ability of seminal doses when bacterial concentration is higher than a 1:1 ratio. Further research is warranted to address by which mechanism E. cloacae impairs boar sperm quality.

How do different concentrations of Clostridium perfringens affect the quality of extended boar spermatozoa?

Bacteriospermia in boar fresh and extended semen is a frequent finding that produces alterations on sperm quality and, consequently, causes economic losses in artificial insemination (AI) centres. The present study sought to evaluate the effect of different infective concentrations of Clostridium perfringens on boar sperm quality, assessed as sperm motility (CASA), morphology and viability, through 11 days of storage at 15°C (experiment 1), and after 96h of incubation at 37°C (experiment 2). With this purpose, different seminal doses were artificially inoculated with different infective concentrations of C. perfringens, ranging from 10(2) to 10(8)cfumL(-1). The negative controls were non-inoculated doses. Sperm quality was checked after 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 7, 8, 9, 10 and 11 days of storage at 15°C in experiment 1, and after 0, 24, 48, 72 and 96h at 37°C in the second experiment. Moreover, the presence/absence of bacteria was detected by PCR analyses during both experiments at different time points. In both experiments, sperm morphology of inoculated samples did not differ from the negative control. Conversely, detrimental effects on sperm viability and motility were observed after 24h of incubation/storage at the highest infective concentrations in both experiments. The deleterious effects observed because of the presence of C. perfringens in semen emphasise the relevance of detecting bacteria in extended doses destined to AI. So, this study suggests that the evaluation of bacterial contamination in semen is a procedure that should be routinely applied while assessing sperm quality in AI centres to avoid the use of doses with low sperm quality and the possible spread of bacterial contaminants.

Human Sperm Interaction with Staphylococcus aureus: A Molecular Approach

Sperm immobilization factor (SIF) causing 100% immobilization of spermatozoa isolated from Staphylococcus aureus when characterized using LC-MS (Liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry) showed that this 20 kDa protein had peptide sequence similarity with hsp-70 protein. It was found to completely (100%) inhibit Mg⁺⁺ ATPase activity of spermatozoa at concentration of 100 μg mL⁻¹. Sperm samples treated with SIF also showed reduction in calcium ionophore-induced acrosome reaction as compared to control samples (treated with calcium ionophore alone). Binding studies of FITC labelled SIF with spermatozoa using fluorescent microscopy showed binding of SIF to the surface of spermatozoa indicating the presence of SIF binding receptor. The receptor was extracted by 3M NaCl and purified by gel permeation chromatography. Characterization of the receptor by MALDI-TOF (Matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization-time of flight) indicated that the receptor shared sequence similarity with MHC class II antigen. A calorimetric study showed that the receptor moiety on spermatozoa was specific for the purified ligand as binding of the receptor to ligand was enthalpically (−11.9 kJ mole⁻¹) as well as entropically (21.53 J mole⁻¹ K⁻¹) favored resulting in the Gibb's free energy of −18.57 kJ mole⁻¹.

Sperm DNA Fragmentation: Origin and Impact on Human Reproduction

Sperm DNA can be damaged due to a multitude of different noxae, which include disease, and occupational and environmental factors. Depending on the magnitude of the damage, such lesions may be repaired by the oocyte or the embryo. If this is not possible, a permanent damage can be manifested leading to mutations of the male genome. In cases where the oocyte or the embryo does not counter these damages to the male genome in terms of repair or an early abortion, sperm DNA damage and fragmentation can be a cause of numerous diseases including childhood cancer.

Leukocytes and oxidative stress: dilemma for sperm function and male fertility

Spermatozoa are constantly exposed to the interphase between oxidation through high amounts of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and leukocytes, and reduction by means of scavengers and antioxidants. Considering the very special functions as being the only cells with such high polarization and exerting their functions outside the body, even in a different individual, the female genital tract, the membranes of these cells are chemically composed of an extraordinary high amount of polyunsaturated fatty acids. This in turn, renders them very susceptible to oxidative stress, which is defined as an imbalance between oxidation and reduction towards the oxidative status. As a result, ROS deriving from both leukocytes and the male germ cells themselves cause a process called 'lipid peroxidation' and other damages to the sperm cell. On the other hand, a certain limited amount of ROS is essential in order to trigger vital physiological reactions in cells, including capacitation or the acrosome reaction in sperm. The treatment of patients with antioxidants to compensate the oxidative status caused by oxidative stress is highly debated as uncontrolled antioxidative treatment might derail the system towards the reduced status, which is also unphysiological and can even induce cancer. This paradox is called the 'antioxidant paradox'. Therefore, a proper andrological diagnostic work-up, including the evaluation of ROS levels and the antioxidant capacity of the semen, has to be carried out beforehand, aimed at keeping the fine balance between oxidation and scavenging of vital amounts of ROS.

Bacteria trigger oxygen radical release and sperm lipid peroxidation in in vitro model of semen inflammation

OBJECTIVE

To assess the in vitro effect of five bacterial strains isolated from semen samples (Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus haemolyticus, Streptococcus oralis, Bacteroides ureolyticus, and Ureaplasma urealyticum) on reactive oxygen intermediate (ROI) release and lipid sperm membrane peroxidation in the coincubated suspensions of white blood cells (WBC) with spermatozoa.

DESIGN

An in vitro model of semen infection.

SETTING

Basic research laboratory.

PATIENT(S)

Healthy normozoospermic volunteers and healthy blood donors.

INTERVENTION(S)

None.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE(S)

Chemiluminescent assay was used to evaluate ROI generation by WBC. Malondialdehyde (MDA) concentration was determined in sperm lysates using high-performance liquid chromatography.

RESULT(S)

Of the bacterial strains tested, B. ureolyticus, S. haemolyticus, and E. coli caused the greatest damage to sperm membrane lipids. An increase in MDA levels in sperm lysates was a natural consequence of bacteria-induced ROI generation. The WBC usually enhanced harmful activity of the infectious agent toward the cell membranes.

CONCLUSION(S)

The harmful effect of bacteria on spermatozoa depends on the type and species of microorganisms invading, colonizing, or infecting the male genital tract and is associated with the accompanying oxidative stress. The presence of leukocytes in semen appears to be the additional factor enhancing the sperm lipid membrane peroxidation, which may affect the fertility status.

Chronic pelvic pain syndrome/chronic prostatitis affect the acrosome reaction in human spermatozoa

Male genital tract inflammations constitute an important factor of male subfertility in which different mediators are discussed damaging sperm membranes. As acrosome reaction (AR) is ultimately a membrane function, this study aimed at investigating the effects of the chronic pelvic pain syndrome on AR. In a total of 56 patients with chronic pelvic pain syndrome NIH IIIA and NIH IIIB, AR, concentration of leucocytes in ejaculate and urine after prostate massage, sperm concentration, motility, vitality and morphology were determined. The control group (n = 95) consisted of patients with normozoospermia and proven absence of signs of inflammation. Compared to the control, both patients groups showed poorer sperm morphology (P < 0.0001) and sperm concentration (P < 0.002). In addition, while maximum AR was not affected, inducibility of AR was significantly lower (P < 0.004) and spontaneous AR increased (P < 0.02). Our data clearly demonstrate a significant influence of the inflammation on acrosomal functionality, which could be mediated by inflammatory mediators like ROS.

Influence of reactive oxygen species produced by activated leukocytes at the level of apoptosis in mature human spermatozoa

Human spermatozoa incubated with polymorphonuclear leukocytes and Escherichia coli showed a significant increase in the annexin V binding (P<.05). This increase was similar to that obtained when spermatozoa were incubated with polymorphonuclear leukocytes activated by phorbol-12-myristate-13-acetate.

The effect of Mycoplasma mycoides ssp. mycoides LC of bovine origin on in vitro fertilizing ability of bull spermatozoa and embryo development

Several Mycoplasma species may adversely affect bovine spermatozoa viability and embryo development. Mycoplasma mycoides ssp. mycoides large-colony (LC) has been isolated from naturally aborted bovine fetuses and from bull semen. The objective of this study was to evaluate whether M. mycoides ssp. mycoides LC contaminated bovine ejaculates could (i) impair in vitro fertilizing ability of bull spermatozoa, (ii) impair embryo development, and (iii) evaluate potential spread by reproductive technologies. In the present study, spermatozoa of 10 fertile bulls were contaminated with M. mycoides ssp. mycoides LC, at a final concentration of 1.5 million CFU/ml and incubated for 60 min before evaluating spermatozoa motility and acrosome reaction inducibility with calcium ionophore. In addition, in vitro contaminated semen of a bull previously shown to have a good in vitro fertilizing ability, was used in an IVF procedure. Embryo development stage on Day-7 of culture was evaluated. Spermatozoa and embryos at morula and blastocyst stages were routinely processed for transmission electron microscopy observation. Both mean total and progressive motility decreased (P < 0.01 ) upon spermatozoa incubation with Mycoplasma. One-hour incubation with calcium ionophore increased the percentage of acrosome-reacted spermatozoa, although Mycoplasma contamination reduced calcium ionophore treatment efficacy (P < 0.05). Ultrastructurally, Mycoplasma microorganisms appeared as moderately electron-dense sphere-shaped particles, adhering to cell membranes. Sperm mid-piece sections showed numeric aberrations of the central singlets such as nine + zero or nine + one of the axonemal complex. Further morphological abnormalities included partial or total absence of dinein arms and radial fibers, with lack of the bridge and the central ring in 35.00 +/- 4.20% of contaminated cells, whereas these abnormalities were not observed in uninfected ones. The IVF trials showed that two-four cell blocks were higher (P < 0.05) in the infected group. Ultrastructure of Day-7 contaminated embryos showed Mycoplasma particles adhering and infiltrating the outer layer of the zona pellucida. Our investigations suggest that M. mycoides ssp. mycoides LC contaminating the bovine ejaculate induced adverse effects on in vitro spermatozoa-fertilizing ability and embryonic development. Some satisfactory quality transferable embryos could be produced in contaminated IVF systems. This could imply a potential transmission of this microorganism through reproductive technologies.

Male genital tract infection: an influence of leukocytes and bacteria on semen

We have studied the oxidative status of 155 semen samples, 95 originating from healthy individuals and 60 from infertile patients, which were subdivided into two groups: (a) normozoospermic with genitourinary tract infection (GTI); and (b) with pathological spermiogram and GTI. Several phases of infection were observed: with bacterial presence only, bacteria and leukocytes, and leukocytes only, following the routine inflammatory pattern. Leukocyte numbers, bacterial strains, pro- and anti-oxidants, and selected pro-inflammatory cytokines (IL-1 beta, IL-6, IL-8 and TNF-alpha) were studied. Additionally, two oxido-sensitive indices were created (SOD/XO and CAT/XO) in order to follow particular phases of semen infection in two subgroups of patients. Different patterns of activities of pro- and anti-oxidant substances, as well as cytokines, were observed in the studied populations. It was reflected mainly by elevated XO activity in a group of patients with a pathological spermiogram while, in a group of patients with GTI and normozoospermia, xanthine oxidase was normal. In the latter group, oxido-sensitive indices were elevated in favour of anti-oxidants; similarly, this occurred with IL-6 levels in comparison to healthy controls. It appears therefore that normozoospermic semen recovers better after infection than pathological semen. Perhaps, IL-6 secretion might be helpful in the observed recovery?

Prostatitis and male infertility: evidence and links

Prostatitis and infertility are common disorders in men and many researchers have investigated a possible link between the two disorders. After almost 3 decades of research the answer to this question remains unknown, although ample evidence exists to support a relationship between male infertility and prostatitis. This paper discusses this evidence and then derives a rational treatment approach to the man with infertility and prostatitis.

Influence of urogenital infection on sperm function

Male accessory sex gland infections are considered to be hazards to male fertility. Various pathophysiologic concepts have evolved from experimental and clinical studies that begin to explain the effects of bacteria and immunologic events on spermatozoa. Recent studies have identified and evaluated mediators that are responsible for specific molecular processes in infections that particularly affect the function of spermatozoa.