Permeability of myocardial capillaries to hydrophilic drugs: the paracellular pathway

Vasorelaxant activity of some oxime derivatives

Several non-aromatic substituted oxime derivatives (formamidoxime, acetaldoxime, acetone oxime, acetohydroxamic acid, formaldoxime) function as vasorelaxant NO donors when added to precontracted aortic rings in vitro. This study was aimed to evaluate whether these substances posses vasodilator properties under in vivo conditions. We studied blood pressure changes elicited by administration of these compounds to conscious chronically catheterized Wistar rats in which endogenous NO synthesis was acutely inhibited by N(omega)-nitro-L-arginine methyl ester (L-NAME) pretreatment (30 mg/kg i.v.). Three of the tested substances (formaldoxime, acetohydroxamic acid and formamidoxime) induced pronounced dose-dependent blood pressure reduction which was further augmented when baroreflex operation was interrupted by ganglionic blockade (5 mg/kg pentolinium). Pretreatment of rats with methylene blue (soluble guanylate cyclase inhibitor) was used to estimate the contribution of NO to observed blood pressure lowering effects of the above compounds. Nitric oxide seems to be responsible for the entire formaldoxime-induced blood pressure decrease and for a considerable part of blood pressure changes elicited by formamidoxime. On the contrary, we did not find a significant NO contribution to blood pressure reduction caused by acetohydroxamic acid. In conclusion, our study confirmed in vivo vasodilator effects of three above mentioned compounds which were earlier demonstrated to induce in vitro vasorelaxation. It indicated a variable contribution of nitric oxide to blood pressure changes elicited by particular compounds. Substances with hydrophilic character (formamidoxime, acetohydroxamic acid, formaldoxime) were effective, whereas less hydrophilic substance (acetaldoxime) or slightly hydrophobic one (acetone oxime) were ineffective.

Dermal capillary clearance: physiology and modeling

Substances applied to the skin surface may permeate deeper tissue layers and pass into the body's systemic circulation by entering blood or lymphatic vessels in the dermis. The purpose of this review is an in-depth analysis of the dermal clearance/exchange process and its constituents: transport through the interstitium, permeability of the microvascular barrier and removal via the circulation. We adapt an 'engineering' viewpoint with emphasis on quantifying the dermal microcirculatory physiology, providing the theoretical framework for the physics of key transport processes and reviewing the available computational clearance models in a comparative manner. Selected experimental data which may serve as valuable input to modeling attempts are also reported.

Na(+)-D-glucose cotransporter in muscle capillaries increases glucose permeability

By immunohistochemistry, we demonstrated the localization of the Na(+)-D-glucose cotransporter SGLT1 in capillaries of rat heart and skeletal muscle, but not in capillaries of small intestine and submandibular gland. mRNA of SGLT1 was identified in skeletal muscle and primary cultured coronary endothelial cells. The functional relevance of SGLT1 for glucose transport across capillary walls in muscle was tested by measuring the extraction of D-glucose from the perfusate during non-recirculating perfusion of isolated rat hindlimbs. In this model, D-glucose extraction from the perfusate is increased by insulin which accelerates D-glucose uptake into myocytes by increasing the concentration of glucose transporter GLUT4 in the plasma membrane. The insulin-induced increase of D-glucose extraction from the perfusate was abolished after blocking SGLT1 with the specific inhibitor phlorizin. The data show that SGLT1 in capillaries of skeletal muscle is required for the action of insulin on D-glucose supply of myocytes.

Localization of the Na+-D-glucose cotransporter SGLT1 in the blood-brain barrier

Immunoreactivity of the Na+-D-glucose cotransporter SGLT1 was demonstrated in intracerebral capillaries of rat and pig. Immunostaining suggested that SGLT1 is located in the luminal membrane of the endothelial cells and in intracellular vesicles. Using in situ hybridization, SGLT1 mRNA was not detectable in intracerebral capillaries of non-treated or sham-operated Wistar rats. However, 1 day after a transient occlusion of the right middle cerebral artery, SGLT1 mRNA was detected in capillaries of both brain hemispheres. Expression of SGLT1 was also demonstrated in primary cultures of capillary endothelial cells from pig using polymerase chain reaction after reverse transcription and western blotting. The data suggest that SGLT1 participates in transport of D-glucose across the blood-brain barrier and is upregulated after brain ischemia and reperfusion.

Comparison of the permeability surface product (PS) of the blood capillary wall in skeletal muscle tissue of various species and in vitro porous membranes using hydrophilic drugs

The aim of this study was twofold: Firstly, to compare the PS, the permeability surface product or organ clearance, of various hydrophilic molecules in the muscle blood capillary wall of different animal species, including humans and, secondly, to design an in vitro diffusion cell to identify similar PS values using the respective membranes. The flux rates of solutes with a wide range of molecular weights measured across porous membranes (Millipore(R) VM (MVM), and Nadir(R) UFC (NUFC)) was associated with high reproducibility (<+/-10% SD). The findings were as follows: (1) For the first time ever it was demonstrated that the log molecular weight dependency (between 180 and 10,000 Dalton) of the log of the PS product of the animal muscle capillary wall (slope = -0.51 +/- 0. 16, and a regression coefficient r(2) = 0.90) reported in the literature was similar to that observed by various authors in humans (slope = -0.50 +/- 0.25 r(2) = 0.77). (2) PS of the MVM membrane with a surface area of 3.8 cm(2) recorded for the newly developed diffusion cell ranged at approximately 50% below (slope -0.58 +/- 0. 12, r(2) = 0.85) the value observed in the in vivo human experiments after intramuscular injection. No linear relationship was established for the NUFC membrane due to solute exclusion effects of the membrane. (3) The diameter of the inner donor chamber (resembling the interstice between the muscle fiber membrane and the capillary wall membrane) was calculated to be sufficiently small to eliminate the possibility of creating a statistically significant diffusion barrier to the test membranes, which was corroborated by theoretical modeling. The structure of the in vitro diffusion cell prevents any significant contribution from the unstirred water layer (UWL) to overall resistance, thus reflecting in vivo diffusion properties of hydrophilic solutes deposited intramuscularly to enter the systemic circulation. It may be concluded, that MVM membrane in the vitro diffusion cell mimics the in vivo blood capillary PS for hydrophilic solutes of up to 10,000 Da.

Amitriptyline-induced loss of tight junction integrity in a human endothelial--smooth muscle cell bi-layer model

Tricyclic antidepressants can, when taken in overdose, cause serious pulmonary failure such as the adult respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS). In this study we have examined the effects of some tricyclic antidepressants (amitriptyline, imipramine, nortriptyline and desipramine) on the viability and morphology of human endothelial and smooth muscle cells derived from umbilical cord. Effects of amitriptyline on endothelial cell fluidity, as well as permeability changes to an endothelial-smooth muscle cell bi-layer, were also studied. The tricyclic antidepressants induced acute, sub-lethal toxicity in both cell types above 100 microM as assessed by the MTT reduction assay. Morphological changes were also observed at these concentrations. Such changes were, however, absent at 33 microM and below. Amitriptyline did, however, cause a concentration-dependent fall in the electrical resistance of an endothelial-smooth muscle cell bi-layer, with significant effects already evident at 33 microM. All of these observed effects were fairly rapid and appeared within 5-15 min of exposure. The rapidity of these permeabilisation effects suggests potential membrane perturbations, since tricyclic antidepressants are lipophilic molecules with affinity for cell membranes. However, fluorescence anisotropy measurements showed no significant difference in membrane fluidity between amitriptyline-treated and control endothelial cells. Collectively, these data point to specific mechanisms of action of amitriptyline, and probably also the other tricyclic antidepressants studied, on endothelial permeability, which is a hallmark of ARDS. The data suggest that increased endothelial permeability could be due to impaired tight junction function.

Pro-inflammatory cytokines increase the permeability of paracetamol across a human endothelial-smooth muscle cell bilayer model

Human umbilical vein endothelial cells and smooth muscle cells, cultured on either side of fixed, porous supports, were used to study the effect of pro-inflammatory cytokines on the transvascular passage of the drug paracetamol. The cellular bilayer effectively retarded the passage of the drug from the "luminal" or endothelial side, to the "tissue" or smooth muscle side of the bilayer over a 30-min period. When the cells were incubated with either IL-1beta (100 ng/l) or TNF-alpha (10 microg/l) for 4 h prior to exposure to paracetamol, the permeability of the bilayer to the drug increased to that of the control inserts without cells. In contrast, the pro-inflammatory cytokines did not affect the electrical resistance of the bilayer, indicating continued tight junctional integrity, or the passage of [3H]-inulin, an indicator of paracellular transport, or the passage of fluorescein, an indicator of passive diffusion across the cells. Together these data indicate the suitability of this syngenetic human cell co-culture model for studying factors affecting the systemic disposition of drug molecules at the level of the vascular wall. The data also indicate that the transport of paracetamol across the blood vessel wall may be greatly enhanced at sites of tissue inflammation in the systemic circulation.