Difficult intubation in paediatrics

Effectiveness of nasal high-flow oxygen during apnoea on hypoxaemia and intubation success in paediatric emergency and ICU settings: a randomised, controlled, open-label trial

BACKGROUND

The use of nasal high-flow (NHF) oxygen for apnoeic oxygenation during emergency paediatric intubation is not universally adopted. Although previous studies suggest potential benefits, it remains unclear whether NHF enhances the likelihood of achieving successful first-attempt intubation without oxygen desaturation in children. We aimed to investigate whether the provision of NHF oxygen during paediatric emergency intubation can improve intubation outcomes.

METHODS

We conducted a randomised, controlled, open-label trial at ten hospitals in Australia, New Zealand, and Switzerland (four emergency departments, ten paediatric intensive care units, and one non-maternity neonatal intensive care unit were included). Children younger than 16 years undergoing emergency endotracheal intubation were eligible for inclusion. Participants were randomly assigned (1:1) to receive either NHF apnoeic oxygenation or standard care during intubation. The primary outcomes were the occurrence of hypoxaemic events (defined as oxygen saturation [SpO2] ≤90%) and successful intubation on the first attempt without desaturation in the modified intention-to-treat population (all intubations in participants for whom prospective or retrospective consent was given and a primary outcome was recorded). This trial is registered with the Australian New Zealand Clinical Trials Registry (ACTRN12617000147381) and is now completed.

FINDINGS

Between May 9, 2017, and Oct 22, 2022, 1069 intubations in 969 children were randomly assigned to the NHF group (535 intubations) or standard care group (534 intubations). The primary analysis comprised 950 intubations in 860 children, with 476 intubations in the NHF group and 474 in the standard care group. In the NHF group, hypoxaemic events occurred in 61 (12·8%) of 476 intubations, compared with 77 (16·2%) of 474 in the standard care group (adjusted odds ratio [aOR] 0·74; 97·5% CI 0·46-1·18; p=0·15). Successful intubation was achieved at the first attempt in 300 (63·0%) of 476 intubations in the NHF group and 280 (59·1%) of 474 intubations in the standard care group (aOR 1·13; 97·5% CI 0·79-1·62; p=0·43). In the per-protocol analysis of 905 intubations, NHF reduced the rate of hypoxaemia (48 [10·8%] of 444) compared with standard care (77 [16·7%] of 461; aOR 0·59; 97·5% CI 0·36-0·97; p=0·017). In this analysis, first-attempt successful intubation was achieved in 284 (64·0%) of 444 intubations in the NHF group versus 268 (58·1%) of 461 intubations in the standard care group (aOR 1·22; 97·5% CI 0·87-1·71; p=0·19).

INTERPRETATION

The use of NHF during emergency intubation in children did not result in a reduction in hypoxaemic events or an increase in the frequency of successful intubation on the first attempt. However, in the per-protocol analysis, there were fewer hypoxaemic events but no difference in successful intubation without hypoxaemia on first attempt. Barriers to the application of NHF during emergency intubation and the reasons for abandoning intubation attempts before physiological compromise should be further investigated to inform future research and recommendations for intubation guidelines and clinical practice.

FUNDING

Thrasher Research Fund (USA), National Health and Medical Research Council (Australia), and the Emergency Medicine Foundation (Australia).

Effect of high-flow nasal and buccal oxygenation on safe apnea time in children with open mouth: A randomized controlled trial

BACKGROUND

High-flow nasal oxygenation is reported to prolong duration of apnea while maintaining adequate oxygen saturation with the mouth closed. Also, buccal oxygenation is known to have similar effects in obese adults. We compared the effect of these two methods on prolongation of acceptable apnea time in pediatric patients with their mouth open.

METHODS

Thirty-eight patients, aged 0-10 years were randomly allocated to either the high-flow nasal oxygenation group (n = 17) or the buccal oxygenation group (n = 21). After induction of anesthesia including neuromuscular blockade, manual ventilation was initiated until the expiratory oxygen concentration reached 90%. Subsequently, ventilation was paused, and the patient's head was extended, and mouth was opened. The HFNO group received 2 L·min-1·kg-1 of oxygen, and the BO group received 0.5 L·min-1·kg-1 of oxygen. We set a target apnea time according to previous literature. When the apnea time reached the target, we defined the case as "success" in prolongation of safe apnea time and resumed ventilation. When the pulse oximetry decreased to 92% before the target apnea time, it was recorded as "failure" and rescue ventilation was given.

RESULTS

The success rate of safe apnea prolongation was 100% in the high-flow nasal oxygenation group compared to 76% in the buccal oxygenation group (p = .04). Oxygen reserve index, end-tidal or transcutaneous carbon dioxide partial pressure, and pulse oximetry did not differ between groups.

CONCLUSION

High-flow nasal oxygenation is effective in maintaining appropriate arterial oxygen saturation during apnea even in children with their mouth open and is superior to buccal oxygenation. Buccal oxygenation may be a good alternative when high-flow nasal oxygenation is not available.

Airway management in a two-year-old child with a tongue tumor using video laryngoscope-assisted flexible bronchoscopic nasotracheal intubation (hybrid technique)

Airway management in children can be challenging. A hybrid technique using a video laryngoscope-assisted flexible bronchoscopic nasotracheal intubation allowed a successful airway management in a two-year-old child with a large tongue tumor.

The neonatal airway

Safe and effective management of the neonatal airway requires knowledge, teamwork, preparation and experience. At baseline, the neonatal airway can present significant challenges to experienced neonatologists and paediatric anaesthesiologists, and increased difficulty can be due to anatomical abnormalities, physiological instability or increased situational stress. Neonatal airway obstruction is under recognised, and should be considered an emergency until the diagnosis and physiological implications are understood. When multiple types of difficulties are present or there are multiple levels of anatomical obstruction, the challenge increases exponentially. In these situations, preparation, multi-disciplinary teamwork and a consistent hospital-wide approach will help to reduce errors and morbidity.

An approach to difficult airway in infants: Comparison of GlideScope® Spectrum LoPro, GlideScope® Spectrum Miller and conventional Macintosh and Miller blades in a simulated Pierre Robin sequence performed by 90 anesthesiologists

BACKGROUND

Airway management can be challenging in neonates and infants. The Pierre Robin sequence (PRS) is a condition characterized by micrognathia, glossoptosis and airway obstruction. The airway management of these patients poses great challenges for anesthesiologists and pediatricians alike. To date, there has been no direct comparison of the hyperangulated GlideScope® Spectrum LoPro (GLP), the straight GlideScope® Spectrum Miller (GSM), a conventional Macintosh (MC) and a conventional Miller blade (ML) in patients with PRS.

METHODS

For this purpose, 90 anesthesiologists (43 with limited experience, 47 with extensive experience) performed orotracheal intubation on an Air-Sim® Pierre Robin X manikin using GLP, GSM, MC and ML in randomized order. 'Time-to-vocal-cords', 'time-to-intubate', 'time-to-ventilate', the severity of oral-soft-tissue-trauma and the subjective evaluation of each device were recorded.

RESULTS

A significantly faster and better view of the vocal cords and lower oral-soft-tissue-trauma was achieved using the GLP (p<0.001). Though, there were no significant differences in the 'time-to-intubate' or 'time-to-ventilate'. The highest intubation success rate was found with GSM and the lowest with GLP (GSM 100%, ML 97.8%, MC 96.7%, GLP 93.3%). When using the videolaryngoscopes, there were no undetected esophageal intubations but in six cases prolonged attempts of intubation (>120s) with the GLP. In the sub-group with extensive experience, we found significantly shorter intubation times for the GSM and ML. The GLP was the tool of choice for most participants, while the conventional MC received the lowest rating.

CONCLUSIONS

Videolaryngoscopy leads to increased safety for the prevention of undetected esophageal intubation in the airway management in a PRS manikin. Hyperangulated blades may ensure a good and fast view of the vocal cords and low oral-soft-tissue-trauma but pose a challenge during the placement of the tube. Specific skills and handling seem to be necessary to ensure a safe tube placement with this sort of blades.

Comparison of the success with two bending angles for lighted stylet intubation in children: A prospective randomised study

BACKGROUND AND AIM

The bend angle of a lighted stylet is an important factor for successful orotracheal intubation. The aim of this study was to test the differences in the success of endotracheal intubation using lighted stylet with 70° versus 90° bend angles in children aged 4-6 years with normal airways.

METHODS

A total of 136 children with normal airways required orotracheal intubation were enrolled and were randomly allocated to the 90° or 70° bend angle groups. The first-attempt success rate was assessed as the primary outcome. The intubation time, lighted stylet search time, lighted stylet withdrawal time, hemodynamic responses, and perioperative complications were recorded as secondary outcomes.

RESULTS

All intubations were completed within three attempts (the 90° group, 63/5/0; the 70° group, 55/11/2). The first-attempt success rate was higher in the 90° group than that in the 70° group (92.6% [63/68 patients] versus 80.9% [55/68 patients], respectively; risk ratio, 1.15; 95% CI, 1.01-1.31; p = .04). Esophageal entry occurred in nine of 83 intubation attempts in the 70° group and two of 73 intubation attempts in the 90° group (risk ratio, 1.09; 95% CI, 1.01-1.19; p = .04). The intubation time and the lighted stylet search time were significantly shorter in the 90° group than that in the 70° group (intubation time: 12.2 ± 2.0 s versus 14.9 ± 2.6 s, respectively; mean difference, 2.65; 95% CI, 1.87-3.43; p < .01; effect size, 1.16; lighted stylet search time: 5.4 ± 1.0 s versus 8.0 ± 1.6 s, respectively; mean difference, 2.66; 95% CI, 2.21-3.12; p < .01; effect size, 1.95).

CONCLUSIONS

Lighted stylet intubation with a 90° bend angle improved the first-attempt success rate and reduced esophageal intubation in children aged 4-6 years with normal airways.

Difficult airway prediction in paediatric anaesthesia (Diffair): Prospective observational study

BACKGROUND

The incidence of difficult airway in paediatric patients is lower than that the adult population, and the majority should be predictable.

AIMS

The primary aim of this trial was to evaluate the incidence of difficult airway in pediatric patients. The secondary aim was to predict difficult airway in these patients.

METHODS

Paediatric patients undergoing elective surgery under general anaesthesia in a tertiary university hospital were examined, and a panel of difficult airway prediction tests was performed. We recorded the incidence, risk factors for difficult airway and events associated with difficult airway together with the sensitivity and specificity of tests for difficult airway and events associated with difficult airway prediction.

RESULTS

We prospectively included 389 paediatric patients. The incidence of difficult airway was 3.6%; the incidence of events associated with difficult airway was 10%. The sensitivity for prediction of events associated with difficult airway during the pre-anaesthesia evaluation was 5.3% with the specificity 93.3%. In the operating room, the sensitivity of prediction was 15% with 97.8% specificity.

CONCLUSION

We found minimal efficacy for preanaesthesia difficult airway prediction.

Nasal high-flow oxygen in pediatric anesthesia and airway management

Nasal High-Flow (NHF) is weight-dependent in children, aimed to match peak inspiratory flow and thereby deliver an accurate FiO₂ with a splinting pressure of 4-6 cm H₂ O. During apnea in children, NHF oxygen can double the expected time to desaturation below 90% in well children but there is no ventilatory exchange; therefore, children do not "THRIVE". Total intravenous anesthesia competency to maintain spontaneous breathing is an important adjunct for successful NHF oxygenation technique during anesthesia. Jaw thrust to maintain a patent upper airway is paramount until surgical instrumentation occurs. There is no evidence to support safe use of NHF oxygen with LASER use due to increased risk of airway fire.

Apneic Oxygenation for Pediatric Endotracheal Intubation: A Narrative Review

Apneic oxygenation (ApOx) has shown to be effective in adult populations in a variety of settings, including prehospital, emergency departments, intensive care units, and elective surgery. This review aims to assess the available literature for ApOx in the pediatric population to determine its effects on hypoxemia, safe apnea times, and flow rates employed safely.

Transnasal Humidified Rapid Insufflation Ventilatory Exchange in children requiring emergent intubation (Kids THRIVE): a protocol for a randomised controlled trial

INTRODUCTION

Emergency intubation of children with abnormal respiratory or cardiac physiology is a high-risk procedure and associated with a high incidence of adverse events including hypoxemia. Successful emergency intubation is dependent on inter-related patient and operator factors. Preoxygenation has been used to maximise oxygen reserves in the patient and to prolong the safe apnoeic time during the intubation phase. Transnasal Humidified Rapid Insufflation Ventilatory Exchange (THRIVE) prolongs the safe apnoeic window for a safe intubation during elective intubation. We designed a clinical trial to test the hypothesis that THRIVE reduces the frequency of adverse and hypoxemic events during emergency intubation in children and to test the hypothesis that this treatment is cost-effective compared with standard care.

METHODS AND ANALYSIS

The Kids THRIVE trial is a multicentre randomised controlled trial performed in participating emergency departments and paediatric intensive care units. 960 infants and children aged 0-16 years requiring emergency intubation for all reasons will be enrolled and allocated to THRIVE or control in a 1:1 allocation with stratification by site, age (<1, 1-7 and >7 years) and operator (junior and senior). Children allocated to THRIVE will receive weight appropriate transnasal flow rates with 100% oxygen, whereas children in the control arm will not receive any transnasal oxygen insufflation. The primary outcomes are defined as follows: (1) hypoxemic event during the intubation phase defined as SpO₂ <90% (patient-dependent variable) and (2) first intubation attempt success without hypoxemia (operator-dependent variable). Analyses will be conducted on an intention-to-treat basis.

ETHICS AND DISSEMINATION

Ethics approval for the protocol and consent process has been obtained (HREC/16/QRCH/81). The trial has been actively recruiting since May 2017. The study findings will be submitted for publication in a peer-reviewed journal.

TRIAL REGISTRATION NUMBER

ACTRN12617000147381.

Adverse events and risk factors during emergency intubation in a tertiary paediatric emergency department

BACKGROUND

Rapid sequence intubation and emergency intubation in the emergency department (ED) can be life-saving procedures, but require the appropriate skills, experience and preparation to avoid complications ranging from simple trauma to life-threatening desaturation. Only scarce data exist in the published literature on complications following emergency intubation in children and most guidelines are extrapolated from the adult population.

PATIENTS AND METHODS

We reviewed all emergency intubations of patients in our tertiary paediatric ED within a 2-year period to estimate the incidence of complications and to analyse the risk factors associated with this procedure.

RESULTS

Seventy-two children were intubated; complications occurred in one in four and repeated attempts at intubation in 17/23 children. The median age of the children was 2 years (range: 0 days-6 years). The most common reason for intubation was altered level of consciousness and the most frequent diagnosis at the time of intubation was seizure/status epilepticus. Complications were related to desaturation (n=7), equipment failure (n=3), intravenous access (n=2) and hypotension (n=2), erroneous or insufficient drug preparation (n=1) and other reasons (n=3). There was no significant association of complications with the child's age or weight, time of arrival to ED, preintubation hypotension or combination of drugs used.

CONCLUSION

Complications of rapid sequence intubation, a relatively low-frequency procedure in the paediatric ED, occurred in one of four children and repeat attempts at intubation were made in another 24%. We suggest that the use of an intubation checklist including the preparation of equipment and recommendations for drug use would minimize the occurrence of adverse events of intubation in children.

Preoperative anesthesia evaluation

The preoperative evaluation is the first step in ensuring the safe conduct of anesthetic care in pediatric patients of all ages. Over time, this process has changed significantly from a time when patients were admitted to the hospital the night before surgery to a time when the majority of patients, including those scheduled for major surgical procedures, arrive the day of surgery. For most patients, the preoperative examiantion can be conducted over the phone by a trained nurse or on-line via a survey thereby eliminating the need for a separate visit merely for the preoperative evaluation. Regardless of where or how it occurs, the goals of the preoperative evaluation are to gain information regarding the patient's current status, comorbid conditions, and the intended procedure. This process allows the identification of patients who require additional preoperative testing or those patients who need to be seen by an anesthesiolgoist prior to the day of surgery. During the preopeative evalaution, decisions are made regarding further laboratory or investigative work-up that are required. The preoperative meeting provides an arena to develop the initial parent-physcian rapport, outline anesthetic risks, and discuss the intended anesthetic plan including options for postoperative analgesia. The process facilitates the care of patients during the perioperative period while limiting surgical cancellations resulting from patient-related issues. The following chapter reviews the essential components of the preoperative evaluation including the appropraite use of preoperative laboratory testing and other investigative procedures including radiologic imaging. Key components of the physical examinatino including the airway examination are reviewed.

Clinical Impact of External Laryngeal Manipulation During Laryngoscopy on Tracheal Intubation Success in Critically Ill Children

OBJECTIVES

External laryngeal manipulation is a commonly used maneuver to improve visualization of the glottis during tracheal intubation in children. However, the effectiveness to improve tracheal intubation attempt success rate in the nonanesthesia setting is not clear. The study objective was to evaluate the association between external laryngeal manipulation use and initial tracheal intubation attempt success in PICUs.

DESIGN

A retrospective observational study using a multicenter emergency airway quality improvement registry.

SETTING

Thirty-five PICUs within general and children's hospitals (29 in the United States, three in Canada, one in Japan, one in Singapore, and one in New Zealand).

PATIENTS

Critically ill children (< 18 years) undergoing initial tracheal intubation with direct laryngoscopy in PICUs between July 1, 2010, and December 31, 2015.

MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS

Propensity score-matched analysis was performed to evaluate the association between external laryngeal manipulation and initial attempt success while adjusting for underlying differences in patient and clinical care factors: age, obesity, tracheal intubation indications, difficult airway features, provider training level, and neuromuscular blockade use. External laryngeal manipulation was defined as any external force to the neck during laryngoscopy. Of the 7,825 tracheal intubations, the initial tracheal intubation attempt was successful in 1,935/3,274 intubations (59%) with external laryngeal manipulation and 3,086/4,551 (68%) without external laryngeal manipulation (unadjusted odds ratio, 0.69; 95% CI, 0.62-0.75; p < 0.001). In propensity score-matched analysis, external laryngeal manipulation remained associated with lower initial tracheal intubation attempt success (adjusted odds ratio, 0.93; 95% CI, 0.90-0.95; p < 0.001).

CONCLUSIONS

External laryngeal manipulation during direct laryngoscopy was associated with lower initial tracheal intubation attempt success in critically ill children, even after adjusting for underlying differences in patient factors and provider levels. The indiscriminate use of external laryngeal manipulation cannot be recommended.

Assessment before airway management

It is wise to plan and prepare for the unexpected difficult airway. Although it is essential to take a history and examine every patient prior to airway management, preoperative anticipation of a difficult airway occurs in only 50% of patients subsequently found to have a difficult airway. Bedside screening tests lack accuracy. The modified Mallampati test and the measurement of thyromental distance are unreliable for prediction of difficult tracheal intubation. Knowledge of risk factors for various airway management techniques may help when devising an airway management plan.

Controversies in Pediatric Perioperative Airways

Pediatric airway management is a challenge in routine anesthesia practice. Any airway-related complication due to improper procedure can have catastrophic consequences in pediatric patients. The authors reviewed the current relevant literature using the following data bases: Google Scholar, PubMed, Medline (OVID SP), and Dynamed, and the following keywords: Airway/s, Children, Pediatric, Difficult Airways, and Controversies. From a summary of the data, we identified several controversies: difficult airway prediction, difficult airway management, cuffed versus uncuffed endotracheal tubes for securing pediatric airways, rapid sequence induction (RSI), laryngeal mask versus endotracheal tube, and extubation timing. The data show that pediatric anesthesia practice in perioperative airway management is currently lacking the strong evidence-based medicine (EBM) data that is available for adult subpopulations. A number of procedural steps in airway management are derived only from adult populations. However, the objective is the same irrespective of patient age: proper securing of the airway and oxygenation of the patient.

The management of difficult intubation in infants: a retrospective review of anesthesia record database

We retrospectively reviewed the anesthesia records of infants < 1 year of age for elucidating the incidence of difficult intubation and airway management in a single general hospital. The electronic data records from a total of 753 consecutive anesthesiological procedures in 513 different infants were analyzed. After excluding data with a lack of records of laryngoscopic findings, a total of 497 procedures (389 different infants) with either remarks of difficult intubation (requiring > 10 min for tracheal intubation) or records of Cormack-Lehane grade were included. Demographic data are median age 5 (range, 0–11) months, height 61 (33–84) cm, body weight 6.0 (1.1 − 11.8) kg. The number of cases with ASA physical status I, II, III and IV was 182 (36.6 %), 135 (27.3 %), 177 (35.5 %) and 3 (0.6 %), respectively. Cormack-Lehane grade 1, 2, 3 and 4 was seen in 450 (90.5 %), 32 (6.4 %), 6 (1.2 %) and 6 (1.2 %) cases, respectively.

Document of difficult intubation was found in 12 cases (2.4 %, 10 different infants) with a lack of record of Cormack-Lehane grade in 3 cases. Of these 10 infants, nine had multiple congenital anomalies including heart diseases and cleft palate. Without premedication, general anesthesia was induced with intravenous midazolam or sevoflurane in the 12 cases. Tracheal intubation was performed after disappearance of spontaneous respiration except three cases who were intubated in the awake state or under sedation. Elapsed time from induction of anesthesia to intubation was 17 (14–29) min. Although mask ventilation was adequate in all cases, two cases (one infant) developed hypoxia and bradycardia during tracheal intubation. No remarkable decrease of SpO₂ or bradycardia less than 100 bpm was detected in other cases. In conclusion, we found difficult intubation in 2.4 % of infants undergoing general anesthesia. Although muscle relaxants are useful for facilitating tracheal intubation, it should be carefully used with the preparation of other airway devices in infants with predicted difficult intubation.

Utility of a gum-elastic bougie for difficult airway management in infants: a simulation-based crossover analysis

Background. Direct laryngoscopy with the Miller laryngoscope (Mil) for infant tracheal intubation is often difficult to use even for skilled professionals. We performed a simulation trial evaluating the utility of a tracheal tube introducer (gum-elastic bougie (GEB)) in a simulated, difficult infant airway model. Methods. Fifteen anesthesiologists performed tracheal intubation on an infant manikin at three different degrees of difficulty (normal [Cormack-Lehane grades (Cormack) 1-2], cervical stabilization [Cormack 2-3], and anteflexion [Cormack 3-4]) with or without a GEB, intubation success rate, and intubation time. Results. In the normal and cervical stabilization trials, all intubation attempts were successful regardless of whether or not the GEB was used. In contrast, only one participant succeeded in tracheal intubation without the GEB in the anteflexion trial; the success rate significantly improved with the GEB (P = 0.005). Intubation time did not significantly change under the normal trial with or without the GEB (without, 12.7 ± 3.8 seconds; with, 13.4 ± 3.6 seconds) but was significantly shorter in the cervical stabilization and anteflexion trials with the GEB. Conclusion. GEB use shortened the intubation time and improved the success rate of difficult infant tracheal intubation by anesthesiologists in simulations.

Pediatric airway management

Securing an airway is a vital task for the anesthesiologist. The pediatric patients have significant anatomical and physiological differences compared with adults, which impact on the techniques and tools that the anesthesiologist might choose to provide safe and effective control of the airway. Furthermore, there are a number of pathological processes, typically seen in the pediatric population, which present unique anatomical or functional difficulties in airway management. The presence of one of these syndromes or conditions can predict a "difficult airway." Many instruments and devices are currently available which have been designed to aid in airway management. Some of these have been adapted from adult designs, but in many cases require alterations in technique to account for the anatomical and physiological differences of the pediatric patient. This review focuses on assessment and management of pediatric airway and highlights the unique challenges encountered in children.

A child with a difficult airway: what do I do next?

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

Difficulties in pediatric airway management are common and continue to result in significant morbidity and mortality. This review reports on current concepts in approaching a child with a difficult airway.

RECENT FINDINGS

Routine airway management in healthy children with normal airways is simple in experienced hands. Mask ventilation (oxygenation) is always possible and tracheal intubation normally simple. However, transient hypoxia is common in these children usually due to unexpected anatomical and functional airway problems or failure to ventilate during rapid sequence induction. Anatomical airway problems (upper airway collapse and adenoid hypertrophy) and functional airway problems (laryngospasm, bronchospasm, insufficient depth of anesthesia and muscle rigidity, gastric hyperinflation, and alveolar collapse) require urgent recognition and treatment algorithms due to insufficient oxygen reserves. Early muscle paralysis and epinephrine administration aids resolution of these functional airway obstructions. Children with an 'impaired' normal (foreign body, allergy, and inflammation) or an expected difficult (scars, tumors, and congenital) airway require careful planning and expertise. Training in the recognition and management of these different situations as well as a suitably equipped anesthesia workstation and trained personnel are essential.

SUMMARY

The healthy child with an unexpected airway problem requires clear strategies. The 'impaired' normal pediatric airway may be handled by anesthetists experienced with children, whereas the expected difficult pediatric airway requires dedicated pediatric anesthesia specialist care and should only be managed in specialized centers.

Infant with unanticipated difficult airway - Trachlight™ to the rescue

Lighted stylets may be used for assisting in oral intubation in both adult as well as pediatric age groups. We report the anesthetic management of an 11- month-old infant with fractured mandible where the airway was secured with tracheal lightwand-guided nasal intubation after the failure of repeated attempts of conventional laryngoscopy.

Incidence and predictors of difficult laryngoscopy in 11,219 pediatric anesthesia procedures

OBJECTIVE

Difficult laryngoscopy in pediatric patients undergoing anesthesia.

AIM

This retrospective analysis was conducted to investigate incidence and predictors of difficult laryngoscopy in a large cohort of pediatric patients receiving general anesthesia with endotracheal intubation.

BACKGROUND

Young age and craniofacial dysmorphy are predictors for the difficult pediatric airway and difficult laryngoscopy. For difficult laryngoscopy, other general predictors are not yet described.

METHODS

Retrospectively, from a 5-year period, data from 11.219 general anesthesia procedures in pediatric patients with endotracheal intubation using age-adapted Macintosh blades in a single center (university hospital) were analyzed statistically.

RESULTS

The overall incidence of difficult laryngoscopy [Cormack and Lehane (CML) grade III and IV] was 1.35%. In patients younger than 1 year, the incidence of CML III or IV was significantly higher than in the older patients (4.7% vs 0.7%). ASA Physical Status III and IV, a higher Mallampati Score (III and IV) and a low BMI were all associated (P < 0.05) with difficult laryngoscopy. Patients undergoing oromaxillofacial surgery and cardiac surgery showed a significantly higher rate of CML III/IV findings.

CONCLUSION

The general incidence of difficult laryngoscopy in pediatric anesthesia is lower than in adults. Our results show that the risk of difficult laryngoscopy is much higher in patients below 1 year of age, in underweight patients and in ASA III and IV patients. The underlying disease might also contribute to the risk. If the Mallampati score could be obtained, prediction of difficult laryngoscopy seems to be reliable. Our data support the existing recommendations for a specialized anesthesiological team to provide safe anesthesia for infants and neonates.

The normal and the challenging pediatric airway

Management of a child's airway is one of the main sources of stress for anesthetists who do not routinely anesthetize children. Unfortunately, trainees are gaining less experience in pediatric airway management than in the past, which is particularly difficult at a time when some beliefs about airway management are being challenged and airway management is less standardized. Fortunately, most children have an easily managed, normal airway. Nevertheless, it is of vital importance to teach our trainees the basic airway skills that are probably the most important skill in an anesthetists' repertoire when it comes to a difficult airway situation. This review focuses on the airway management in children with a normal and a challenging airway. Different choices of airway management in children, and their advantages and disadvantages are discussed. Furthermore, the three broad causes of a challenging airway in children and infants are highlighted - the difficulty obtaining a mask seal, difficulty visualizing the vocal cords, and the third cause in which the larynx can be visualized but the difficulty lies at or beyond that level. Guidelines are given how to deal with these patients as well as with the feared but rare scenario of 'cannot ventilate, cannot intubate' in children.

Evaluation of laryngoscopic views and related influencing factors in a pediatric population

BACKGROUND

Management of the difficult pediatric airway is a serious problem that anesthesiologists face in their practice. However, guidelines for adults may not be applied readily to pediatric populations.

AIM

This study was performed to determine the incidence of different laryngoscopic views and the associated conditions.

METHODS

The authors collected data on 511 consecutive patients who were scheduled to receive general anesthesia. Laryngeal views were graded using the Cormack and Lehane classification, and grades III and IV were defined as difficult laryngoscopic visualization. The distances from the nose to the upper lip, lower lip to menthom, ear tragus to mouth, ear lobe to mouth, the horizontal length of mandible, and thyromental distance were measured. The association of these parameters with the laryngoscopic views was analyzed.

RESULTS

The incidence of grade I to IV laryngoscopic views was 80%, 17%, 3%, and 0%, respectively. All the cases that involved difficult laryngoscopy (3%) were aged ≤3 months. The distances from the lower lip to menthom and ear tragus to mouth had a direct association with difficult cases. There were no apparent cutoff points to predict difficult laryngoscopy, for any of the distances.

CONCLUSION

The difficult cases were mostly aged <1 year. The association between difficult laryngoscopy and the distances between the lower lip border and menthom, ear tragus and corner of the mouth, and ear lobe and corner of the mouth can be summarized in an equation that may have potential use in the prediction of difficult laryngoscopy.

Predictors of intubation in children

OBJECTIVE

To estimate the relation of mentohyoid, thyromental and sternomental distances to height, weight and age of children with normal airway.

METHODS

We carried out a prospective, double blind pilot study in 400 children posted for elective surgery to measure mentohyoid, thyromental and sternomental distances pre-operatively followed by intra-op evaluation of intubation using Cormack and Lehane grading.

RESULTS

On assessing the contribution of age, height and weight to predict mentohyoid, thyromental and sternomental distances in children, the best predictor was found to be height (p=0.001)followed by age (p=0.04)of the patient.

CONCLUSION

We have derived simple formulae to predict mentohyoid, thyromental and sternomental distances relevant to airway based on height and age of children.

Proposal for the management of the unexpected difficult pediatric airway

The incidence of unanticipated difficult or failed airway in otherwise healthy children is rare, and routine airway management in pediatric patients is easy in experienced hands. However, difficulties with airway management in healthy children are not infrequent in nonpediatric anesthetists and are a main reason for pediatric anesthesia-related morbidity and mortality. Clear concepts and strategies are, therefore, required to maintain oxygenation and ventilation in children. Several complicated algorithms for the management of the unanticipated difficult adult and pediatric airway have been proposed, but a simple structured algorithm for the pediatric patient with unanticipated difficult airway is missing. This paper proposes a simple step-wise algorithm for the unexpected difficult pediatric airway based on an adult Difficult Airway Society (DAS) protocol, discusses the role of recently introduced airway devices, and suggests a content of a pediatric airway trolley. It is intended as an easy to memorize and a practical guide for the anesthetist only occasionally involved in pediatric anesthesia care as well as a call to stimulate discussion about the management of the unanticipated difficult pediatric airway.

The management of difficult intubation in children

This article looks at the current techniques and equipment recommended for the management of the difficult intubation scenario in pediatric practice. We discuss the general considerations including preoperative preparation, the preferred anesthetic technique and the use of both rigid laryngoscopic and fiberoptic techniques for intubation. The unanticipated scenario is also discussed.

Canadian pediatric anesthesiologists prefer inhalational anesthesia to manage difficult airways: A survey

PURPOSE

To survey Canadian pediatric anesthesiologists to assess practice patterns in managing pediatric patients with difficult airways.

METHODS

Canadian pediatric anesthesiologists were invited to complete a web survey. Respondents selected their preferred anesthetic and airway management techniques in six clinical scenarios. The clinical scenarios involved airway management for cases where the difficulty was in visualizing the airway, sharing the airway and accessing a compromised airway.

RESULTS

General inhalational anesthesia with spontaneous respiration was the preferred technique for managing difficult intubation especially in infants (90%) and younger children (97%), however, iv anesthesia was chosen for the management of the shared airway in the older child (51%) where there was little concern regarding difficulty of intubation. Most respondents would initially attempt direct laryngoscopy for the two scenarios of anticipated difficult airway (73% and 98%). The laryngeal mask airway is commonly used to guide fibreoptic endoscopy. The potential for complete airway obstruction would encourage respondents to employ a rigid bronchoscope as an alternate technique (17% and 44%).

CONCLUSION

Inhalational anesthesia remains the preferred technique for management of the difficult pediatric airway amongst Canadian pediatric anesthesiologists. Intravenous techniques are relatively more commonly chosen in cases where there is a shared airway but little concern regarding difficulty of intubation. In cases of anticipated difficult intubation, direct laryngoscopy remains the technique of choice and fibreoptic laryngoscopy makes a good alternate technique. The use of the laryngeal mask airway was preferred to facilitate fibreoptic intubation.

The pediatric airway

Good airway management technique is an essential skill for physicians in most specialties. This article begins with a review of basic airway anatomy and the physiology of the uninstrumented airway. This subject is of particular importance given the increasing use of procedural sedation and the increased recognition of sleep-disordered breathing in infants and children. A discussion of the various artificial airways and their advantages and disadvantages follows. The difficult airway is an important contributor to both patient morbidity and mortality. It is important to have a planned management approach available for the anticipated and, more importantly, the unanticipated difficult airway. The recommendations of the American Society of Anesthesiologists Taskforce on the Management of the Difficult Airway have good application for this important problem. The fetus with the prenatal diagnosis of a lesion that predicts a difficult airway presents a particular challenge. The utilization of an ex-utero intrapartum treatment method is presented as an important approach for the delivery and airway management of these infants. This section closes with a discussion of the prehospital airway management of the pediatric patient.

Bronchoscopy in intensive care units

Many situations exist imposing the use of bronchoscopy in intensive care units (ICU). There are many diagnostic and therapeutic indications. Interventional bronchoscopy represents a group of endoscopic techniques used in emergency or during the handling of different situations of airway obstruction. These situations seem quite frequent in paediatric ICU. This field has been developed with the availability of small endoscopes on the market and progress in instrumental and anaesthetic techniques.

Success rates of pediatric intubation by a non-physician-staffed critical care transport service

OBJECTIVES

Previous researchers have found that institution of an endotracheal intubation (ETI) protocol into a large urban paramedic program resulted in low success rates and had no beneficial effects. The primary goal of the current study was to assess ETI success rates achieved by a small cadre of nonphysician critical care transport (CCT) providers. A secondary objective was to assess for association between ETI success and factors such as age group or ETI setting (eg, in-hospital, in-aircraft).

DESIGN

This retrospective study analyzed transport records of consecutive pediatric patients (younger than 13 years) in whom ETI was attempted by a nurse/paramedic (RN/EMTP) CCT crew working under protocols which included neuromuscular blockade (NMB)-facilitated ETI. The CCT service performs scene and interfacility transports in helicopter, fixed-wing (airplane), and ground critical care vehicles; pediatric patients are transferred to 4 receiving tertiary care centers. Chi2 test, Fisher exact test, and logistic regression analysis (P = 0.05) examined ETI success rates and assessed for association between ETI success and various characteristics (eg, age group, ETI setting).

RESULTS

The CCT crew attempted ETI in 143 patients, with success in 136 cases (95.1%). There were no unrecognized esophageal intubations. ETI success was of similar likelihood across pediatric age groups (P = 0.19) and in different ETI settings (P = 0.57).

CONCLUSIONS

CCT crew airway management success was very high in all practice settings. These data support contentions that, with a high level of initial and ongoing training, nonphysician CCT crew can successfully manage pediatric airways in a variety of circumstances.