The Effects of Introduced Wild Animals on New Zealand Forests

Impacts of a Non-indigenous Ecosystem Engineer, the American Beaver (Castor canadensis), in a Biodiversity Hotspot

Non-native species having high per capita impacts in invaded communities are those that modulate resource availability and alter disturbance regimes in ways that are biologically incompatible with the native biota. In areas where it has been introduced by humans, American beaver (Castor canadensis) is an iconic example of such species due to its capacity to alter trophic dynamics of entire ecosystems and create new invasional pathways for other non-native species. The species is problematic in several watersheds within the Southern California-Northern Baja California Coast Ecoregion, a recognized hotspot of biodiversity, due to its ability to modify habitat in ways that favor invasive predators and competitors over the region's native species and habitat. Beaver was deliberately introduced across California in the mid-1900s and generally accepted as non-native to the region up to the early 2000s; however, articles promoting the idea that beaver may be a natural resident have gained traction in recent years, due in large part to the species' charismatic nature rather than by presentation of sound evidence. Here, we discuss the problems associated with beaver disturbance and its effects on conserving the region's native fauna and flora. We refute arguments underlying the claim that beaver is native to the region, and review paleontological, zooarchaeological, and historical survey data from renowned field biologists and naturalists over the past ~160 years to show that no evidence exists that beaver arrived by any means other than deliberate human introduction. Managing this ecosystem engineer has potential to reduce the richness and abundance of other non-native species because the novel, engineered habitat now supporting these species would diminish in beaver-occupied watersheds. At the same time, hydrologic functionality would shift toward more natural, ephemeral conditions that favor the regions' native species while suppressing the dominance of the most insidious invaders.

The potential for biodiversity offsetting to fund effective invasive species control

Compensating for biodiversity losses in 1 location by conserving or restoring biodiversity elsewhere (i.e., biodiversity offsetting) is being used increasingly to compensate for biodiversity losses resulting from development. We considered whether a form of biodiversity offsetting, enhancement offsetting (i.e., enhancing the quality of degraded natural habitats through intensive ecological management), can realistically secure additional funding to control biological invaders at a scale and duration that results in enhanced biodiversity outcomes. We suggest that biodiversity offsetting has the potential to enhance biodiversity values through funding of invasive species control, but it needs to meet 7 key conditions: be technically possible to reduce invasive species to levels that enhance native biodiversity; be affordable; be sufficiently large to compensate for the impact; be adaptable to accommodate new strategic and tactical developments while not compromising biodiversity outcomes; acknowledge uncertainties associated with managing pests; be based on an explicit risk assessment that identifies the cost of not achieving target outcomes; and include financial mechanisms to provide for in-perpetuity funding. The challenge then for conservation practitioners, advocates, and policy makers is to develop frameworks that allow for durable and effective partnerships with developers to realize the full potential of enhancement offsets, which will require a shift away from traditional preservation-focused approaches to biodiversity management.

Reliable discrimination of 10 ungulate species using high resolution melting analysis of faecal DNA

Identifying species occupying an area is essential for many ecological and conservation studies. Faecal DNA is a potentially powerful method for identifying cryptic mammalian species. In New Zealand, 10 species of ungulate (Order: Artiodactyla) have established wild populations and are managed as pests because of their impacts on native ecosystems. However, identifying the ungulate species present within a management area based on pellet morphology is unreliable. We present a method that enables reliable identification of 10 ungulate species (red deer, sika deer, rusa deer, fallow deer, sambar deer, white-tailed deer, Himalayan tahr, Alpine chamois, feral sheep, and feral goat) from swabs of faecal pellets. A high resolution melting (HRM) assay, targeting a fragment of the 12S rRNA gene, was developed. Species-specific primers were designed and combined in a multiplex PCR resulting in fragments of different length and therefore different melting behaviour for each species. The method was developed using tissue from each of the 10 species, and was validated in blind trials. Our protocol enabled species to be determined for 94% of faecal pellet swabs collected during routine monitoring by the New Zealand Department of Conservation. Our HRM method enables high-throughput and cost-effective species identification from low DNA template samples, and could readily be adapted to discriminate other mammalian species from faecal DNA.

Dietary changes in response to population reduction in the possum Trichosurus vulpecula in New Zealand

Context Efforts to protect or restore degraded plant communities by population control of invasive herbivores frequently fail to achieve their goals. Aims We seek to quantify changes in diet of an introduced herbivore, the brushtail possum (Trichosurus vulpecula), following population control, and determine how these may contribute to variable responses in plant condition. Methods Stomach contents of possums from five areas of indigenous forest in northern New Zealand were analysed to measure diet before and after the application of possum control. Key results The contribution of fruit, and foliage of some early successional forest species, to total possum diet increased up to 27-fold following possum population control. This was accompanied by declines in consumption of the main pre-control possum foods (foliage from common canopy trees). Dietary changes were a combination of an immediate response to control (1 year) and a strengthening of these initial changes with increasing time since control. Conclusions Possums in the study areas changed diet following population control, from a diet dominated by foliage of common canopy tree species to one dominated by fruits, and foliage of uncommon early successional plants. Pest control instantaneously increased the per capita availability of all foods, and probably permitted absolute increases in some foods through plant recovery, enabling possums to substitute scarce, high-preference foods for abundant but less preferred canopy foliage. Implications Following control of a pest herbivore, dietary changes reduce benefits for the most vulnerable preferred plant foods, but enhance benefits for less favoured plants. Intense pest control can permit some recovery of highly preferred foods, despite increased per capita consumption of these foods by survivors of control.

When deer must die: large uncertainty surrounds changes in deer abundance achieved by helicopter- and ground-based hunting in New Zealand forests

Context When environmental, economic and/or social effects of wildlife are considered undesirable and need to be reduced, managers require knowledge of the effectiveness of candidate control techniques, particularly the relationship between control effort and change in abundance. Aims We evaluated the effects of control on the abundances of introduced red deer (Cervus elaphus scoticus) and sika deer (Cervus nippon) at three New Zealand forest sites (two North Island, one South Island) in an 8-year adaptive-management experiment. Methods We identified paired areas of 3600 ha at each site that were as similar as possible in geology, physical environments and forest composition and applied deer control (helicopter- and/or ground-based hunting) to a randomly selected member of each pair. The abundances of deer were monitored in each treatment and non-treatment area for up to 7 years by using faecal pellet counts on 50 randomly located transects. Key results The difference between deer abundances in the treatment and non-treatment areas was significantly negative at one site, significantly positive at one site and indistinguishable at the other site. Faecal pellet abundances declined with increasing helicopter-based hunting effort but did not change with increasing ground-based hunting effort. There was evidence that aerially sown 1080 baits used for possum control in two treatment areas reduced deer abundances. Conclusions The substantial uncertainty surrounding the relationships between deer control effort and changes in deer abundance means that managers cannot assume that the environmental, economic and/or social problems caused by deer will be alleviated with the quantum of control effort applied in the present study. Implications Reducing the abundances of deer in forests may require substantially more control effort than is currently believed.