Emotional autonomy versus detachment: revisiting the vicissitudes of adolescence and young adulthood

The longitudinal associations between perceived maternal parenting practices, mother-adolescent relationship quality, and friendship quality

INTRODUCTION

As adolescents begin to expand their social networks beyond their family, they turn increasingly to their peers for support. Parenting practices present in the parent-child dyad are likely to extend to peer dyads. However, when considering the process involved in the transmission from parenting practices to friendships, the mediating role of parent-child relationships remains unclear. The current study explored the mediating effect of mother-adolescent relationship quality in the association between perceived maternal parenting practices (i.e., autonomy support and psychological control) and friendship quality using a three-wave longitudinal design, and also examined whether adolescents' gender moderates these associations.

METHODS

A sample of 344 Chinese adolescents (12.01 to 15-year-old at Wave 1, M = 13.08, SD = 0.39; 153 boys and 191 girls) filled out questionnaires on perceived maternal parenting practices, mother-adolescent relationship quality, and friendship quality, separately in three waves.

RESULTS

Perceived maternal autonomy support was associated with positive friendship quality through positive mother-adolescent relationship quality. However, perceived maternal psychological control was not associated with negative friendship quality. Moreover, marginal gender differences were only found in the associations between autonomy support and positive mother-adolescent relationship quality.

CONCLUSIONS

These findings demonstrate the spillover effects existed only between autonomy support and positive friendship quality, and highlight the importance of positive mother-adolescent relationship quality when promoting positive friendship quality.

Feeling Free and Having an Authentic Inner Compass as Important Aspects of the Need for Autonomy in Emerging Adults' Interactions With Their Mothers

Based on past theorizing and research, we posited that there are two kinds of specific experiences that contribute to the satisfaction of the general need for autonomy in emerging adults, as reflected in volitional, self-endorsed, actions. These experiences are: (1) feeling free, and (2) having a valid authentic inner compass (AIC). In the first study testing this hypothesis, college students in Israel (n = 163, mean age = 21.33), and in China (n = 72, mean age = 23.67) completed measures assessing experiences of freedom and having a valid AIC during contacts with mothers, extent of volitional contacts with mothers, and vitality during contacts with mothers. Confirmatory factor analyses and invariance analysis supported the validity of the measures, and their equivalence across cultures. In the Israeli sample, students also completed a measure assessing the extent to which the sense of having a valid AIC during contacts with one’s mother is based on intrinsic aspirations and goals. As expected, across cultures, participants distinguished between experiences of (a) having a valid AIC, and (b) feeling free. The findings also suggest that experiences of freedom and of having a valid AIC during contacts with mothers are associated with extent of volitional contacts with mother, and subsequent vitality during these contacts. Also as expected, experiencing a valid AIC during contacts with mother was associated with volitional contacts with her and subsequent vitality - only when the AIC was based on intrinsic aspirations. The results suggest that in assessing people’s sense of AIC, it is important to consider the content of the aspirations and goals on which this sense is based. The findings are consistent with the view that feeling free, and having a valid AIC are two specific autonomy experiences which promote a more global experience of need autonomy satisfaction, as indicated by feelings of volitional and self-endorsed action.

Long-Term Effects of Acceptance and Rejection by Parents and Peers on Educational Attainment: A Study from Pre-Adolescence to Early Adulthood

Acceptance and rejection by parents and peers play an important role in pre-adolescents' educational outcomes. Prior research focused on either parents or peers, did not encompass effects into adulthood, or considered either acceptance or rejection. This study investigated the relation between parental and peer acceptance and rejection, and their interplay, in pre-adolescence and educational attainment in early adulthood. A sample of 2229 pre-adolescents (M_age T1 = 11.11, SD = 0.56; 50.7% girls) was followed to early adulthood (M_age T5 = 22.29, SD = 0.65). Ordinal logistic regression showed that pre-adolescents' perceived parental acceptance was positively related to educational attainment in early adulthood, whereas peer rejection was negatively related, even when WISC score and socioeconomic status were considered. No interaction effects were found, revealing no "dual-hit effect" of being rejected by parents and peers, no "dual-miss effect" of being accepted by parents and peers, and no effects of acceptance in one context (i.e., parents or peers) buffering the negative effect of rejection in the other context. The findings underscore unique and long-term links of parental acceptance and peer rejection with early adults' educational attainment, underlining the importance of not only peers but also parents in adolescence. These insights can be used in promoting long-term educational outcomes through relationships with parents and peers.

Development and Psychometric Properties of a New Self-Report Questionnaire Measuring Attachment in School-Age Children: The Attachment in Middle Childhood Questionnaire (AMCQ)

Although conscious aspects of attachment representations can be effectively assessed in middle childhood, the few available self-reports are based on different operationalizations of attachment and do not always show adequate psychometric properties. The current study aimed to develop and evaluate the psychometric properties of the Attachment in Middle Childhood Questionnaire (AMCQ). Using three independent samples of Italian children (Mage = 10 years, 52% = girls), in three interrelated studies we (1) selected a pool of items from existing questionnaires, adapted them to the same response format, and subjected them to exploratory factor analysis; (2) performed confirmatory factor analyses on the retained items; and (3) used structural equation modeling to assess the factor structure, external validity, and invariance across gender and age groups. The final 15-item questionnaire comprised two dimensions (anxiety and avoidance) and a supplementary scale (security). Overall, results supported the reliability and validity of the AMCQ for Italian children.

Suicidal thoughts and behaviors in preadolescents: Findings and replication in two population-based samples

INTRODUCTION

Given increasing concern in suicide in preadolescent children, this study aimed to characterize and identify potential indicators of risk for suicidal ideation (SI) and suicide attempts (SAs) in this population.

METHODS

Data were drawn from two population-based samples of preadolescents: the 2007 and 2010 Minnesota Student Survey and analyses were restricted to 11- and 12-year-olds. Sociodemographic characteristics, childhood maltreatment, parental relations, peer relations, and school climate were examined in relation to past-year SI and SA. To examine correlates of SI, unconfounded by risk for SA, individuals with a history of SA were excluded from SI analyses. Correlates of SA were examined among individuals with past-year SI. Logistic regression analyses were conducted with past-year SI and SA as criterion variables.

RESULTS

Results from the 2007 and 2010 data sets were highly consistent. The prevalence of past-year SI was 9.28% and 9.25% in 2007 and 2010, respectively. Of the total sample, 1.90% and 1.87% reported a past-year SA (17.00% and 16.78% of those with past-year SI). Overall, effect sizes were generally modest to medium. The strongest effects were observed for sexual and physical abuse, parental support, and perceived safety at school (ps < .001). In multivariate analyses of SI and SA, sexual and physical abuse had the largest effect sizes (ORSI  = 2.18 [95% CI = 1.90-2.51] to 2.96 [95% CI = 2.69-3.26]; ORSA  = 1.55 [95% CI = 1.29-1.86] to 2.26 [95% CI = 1.82-2.80]).

CONCLUSIONS

SI and SA occur at a concerning rate among preadolescent children. Screening for childhood sexual and physical abuse may be important for identifying those at risk for these clinical outcomes.

Parenting and Healthy Teenage Lifestyles

How can one promote adolescent adjustment toward a healthy lifestyle? The first step is to locate the healthy habit configuration within the family environment. The hypothesis is that, if adolescent lifestyles are assumed autonomously during adolescence, then it is very likely that they will last throughout life. How does this relate to parenting styles? After reviewing the literature of the last four decades on adolescent behavioral autonomy and scientific articles that link healthy lifestyles with parenting, several conclusions have been reached, such as the relevance of recovering the biopsychosocial richness of healthy lifestyles, the need to use a dialogue strategy to resolve discrepancies between adolescents and their parents, and the adequacy of the personalistic parenting style to promote adjusted adolescent behavioral autonomy, and with it maintain healthy lifestyles in the long term.

Problematic Internet Use in Lonely Adolescents: The Mediating Role of Detachment from Parents

OBJECTIVE

The relationship between Problematic Internet Use (PIU) and loneliness in adolescence is a disputed issue. In the current study, we explored whether the relationship between loneliness and PIU in adolescence is mediated by detachment from parents.

METHOD

A community sample of 356 adolescents completed self-report questionnaires assessing Internet addiction symptoms, peer- and parent-related loneliness, and detachment from parents. Linear regression and mediation analyses were performed to explore the role of loneliness and detachment from parents in predicting PIU.

RESULTS

Peer-related loneliness positively predicted PIU, whereas detachment from parents fully mediated the association between parent-related loneliness and PIU.

CONCLUSIONS

Multidimensional assessment of subjective solitary experience is needed to explain the relationship between loneliness and PIU in adolescence. This is in line with previous research on adolescents' PIU, suggesting that peer-related loneliness is more strictly related with maladjustment, whereas parent-related loneliness is maladaptive in the context of a lack of parental support.

Attachment and problematic Facebook use in adolescents: The mediating role of metacognitions

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

Recent research used attachment theory and the metacognitive tenet as frameworks to explain problematic Facebook use (PFU). This study aims to test, in a single model, the role of different attachment styles and metacognitions in PFU among adolescents.

METHODS

Two separate studies were conducted in order to establish the link between security (Study 1) and insecurity (Study 2), metacognitions, and PFU. A total of 369 and 442 Italian adolescents (age: 14-20 years old) participated in Study 1 and Study 2, respectively.

RESULTS

Path analyses revealed the relative importance of different attachment dimensions with mother and father in predicting PFU and the mediating role of metacognitions between attachment styles and PFU.

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION

In conclusion, since attachment styles and PFU may significantly affect adolescents' development and well-being, the results of this study may provide some practical indications for researchers and practitioners.

The Need to Contribute During Adolescence

As an intensely social species, humans demonstrate the propensity to contribute to other individuals and groups by providing support, resources, or helping to achieve a shared goal. Accumulating evidence suggests that contribution benefits the givers as well as the receivers. The need to contribute during adolescence, however, has been underappreciated compared with more individually focused psychological or social developmental needs. The need is particularly significant during the teenage years, when children's social world expands and they become increasingly capable of making contributions of consequence. Moreover, contribution can both promote and be a key element of traditionally conceived fundamental needs of the adolescent period such as autonomy, identity, and intimacy. The neural and biological foundations of the adolescent need to contribute, as well as the ways in which social environments meet that need, are discussed. A scientific and practical investment in contribution would synergize with other recent efforts to reframe thinking about the adolescent period, providing potential returns to the field as well as to youths and their communities.

Group-based trajectories of parent-child communication and parental knowledge between sexual minority and heterosexual girls and their associations with substance use

INTRODUCTION

Sexual minority girls (SMGs) may be at high risk for substance use partially due to anti-gay discrimination. Low levels of parent-child communication and parental knowledge may contribute to this risk. This study seeks to identify parent-child communication and parental knowledge trajectories, determine the likelihood of SMGs following these trajectories, and describe the relationships between these trajectories, sexual orientation, and substance use.

METHODS

This is a secondary data analysis of the Pittsburgh Girls Study (N = 2450), a longitudinal study on the changes in behaviors among girls throughout childhood. We generated group trajectory models of parentchild communication and parental knowledge starting from age 12 to age 17 years. We then tested the likelihood of SMGs belonging to these group trajectories and the association between group trajectory membership and substance use at age 18 years.

RESULTS

SMGs were more likely than were heterosexual girls to follow the infrequent decreasing parent-child communication trajectory and the slowly decreasing parental knowledge trajectory and were more likely than were heterosexual girls to engage in substance use at age 18 years. Parent-child communication and parental knowledge trajectories were statistically significant mediators between sexual orientation and substance use.

CONCLUSION

Frequency of parent-child communication and levels of parental knowledge may be determinants of substance use among SMGs. These results have implications for developing substance use prevention programs among sexual minority youth targeting parent-child relationships.

Adolescent Internet Abuse: A Study on the Role of Attachment to Parents and Peers in a Large Community Sample

Adolescents are the main users of new technologies and their main purpose of use is social interaction. Although new technologies are useful to teenagers, in addressing their developmental tasks, recent studies have shown that they may be an obstacle in their growth. Research shows that teenagers with Internet addiction experience lower quality in their relationships with parents and more individual difficulties. However, limited research is available on the role played by adolescents' attachment to parents and peers, considering their psychological profiles. We evaluated in a large community sample of adolescents (N = 1105) the Internet use/abuse, the adolescents' attachment to parents and peers, and their psychological profiles. Hierarchical regression analyses were conducted to verify the influence of parental and peer attachment on Internet use/abuse, considering the moderating effect of adolescents' psychopathological risk. Results showed that adolescents' attachment to parents had a significant effect on Internet use. Adolescents' psychopathological risk had a moderating effect on the relationship between attachment to mothers and Internet use. Our study shows that further research is needed, taking into account both individual and family variables.

Adolescents' perception of parental feeding practices: Adaptation and validation of the Comprehensive Feeding Practices Questionnaire for Brazilian adolescents-The CFPQ-Teen

BACKGROUND

Parental feeding practices may play a key role in dietary habits and nutritional status of adolescents, but research from adolescents' point of view on this topic is scarce.

OBJECTIVE

To adapt and validate an instrument of parental feeding practices as perceived by adolescents in a Brazilian setting.

METHODS

The Comprehensive Feeding Practices Questionnaire was translated into Portuguese and adapted to be answered by adolescents (ages 12 to 18). Content analysis and FACE validity to assess cultural equivalence was undertaken by experts in the adolescent nutritional and psychological fields. Pilot study was evaluated in 23 adolescents. The final version was administered to 41 students to assess instrument reproducibility (Intraclass Correlation Coefficient). Internal consistency (Cronbach's Alpha) and construct validity (Confirmatory Factor Analysis) were assessed in a third sample of 307 adolescents.

RESULTS

Experts and adolescents considered content validity as appropriate. In reproducibility analysis (Intraclass Correlation Coefficient), 10 of the 12 factors were above 0.7. The factors "teaching about nutrition" and "food as reward" obtained values of 0.60 and 0.68, respectively. The Cronbach's Alpha of the whole scale was 0.83 and alphas for subscales ranged from 0.52 to 0.85; the factors "teaching about nutrition" and "food as a reward" had the lowest values (0.52). After removing these two factors, the Confirmatory Factor Analysis indicated that the structural model was appropriate. The final scale was made up of 10 factors with 43 questions.

CONCLUSIONS

The Comprehensive Feeding Practices Questionnaire-Teen demonstrates validity and reliability, and is a suitable tool to evaluate the perceptions of adolescents regarding parental feeding practices.

Are There Similar or Divergent Transitions to Adulthood in a Mediterranean Context? A Cross-National Comparison of Italy and Spain

The purpose of this study was to examine the differences and similarities between Italy and Spain in regard to emerging adults' perceptions of identity status, autonomy, attachment, and life satisfaction. The goal was to verify whether a Mediterranean model of transitions from adolescence to adulthood exists. Three hundred and forty undergraduate students (171 Italians and 169 Spanish) ranging in age from 19 to 22 completed measures of identity status, emotional autonomy, attachment style, and life satisfaction. Multiple correspondence analyses provided a graphic synthesis of results. The results indicate that no common model of young adult development exists in Spain and Italy and that Italian youth have a more complex quality of development compared to their Spanish peers.

Perception of transgenerational family relationships: comparison of eating-disordered patients and their parents

Background

Disturbances in various elements of transgenerational family functioning patterns are not uncommon in studies of eating disorders.

We examined the relationship between patients’ perception of autonomy and intimacy in their families of origin and that of their parents in their own families of origin.

Material/Methods

The sample consisted of 112 girls who had a diagnosis of an eating disoder and their parents; 54 of the girls were diagnosed with anorexia nervosa restrictive subtype, 22 as anorexia nervosa binge/purge subtype, and 36 were diagnosed with bulimia nervosa. We had 2 control groups: 1 group consisted of 36 girls diagnosed with a depressive episode, dysthymia, or adjustment disorder with depressed mood and the other group was 85 female students from schools in Cracow, Poland and their parents. We used the the Family of Origin Scale to assess perception of family relationships. Statistical analysis was performed with the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS 20.0.PL; Chicago, IL, USA).

Results

There was a significant association between daughters’ and fathers’ perceptions of autonomy in their families of origin in all groups. There was no significant association between daughters’ and mothers’ perceptions in all groups. The strongest correlation was between the non-clinical sample of girls and their fathers and for the bulimic group.

Conclusions

We did not detect any link indicating the specificity of transgenerational transmission of autonomy and intimacy in eating disorders. The results point to the importance of the father figure in studies of family systems, including the context of family transmission.

A longitudinal assessment of early pubertal timing as a predictor of psychosocial changes in adolescent girls with and without spina bifida

OBJECTIVE

A longitudinal comparison of adolescent girls with and without spina bifida (SB), regarding the effects of early pubertal timing on girls' depressive symptoms, mother-daughter conflict, and emotional distancing.

METHODS

62 mother-daughter dyads (31 with SB and 31 without) reported on psychosocial outcomes at 5 time points (ages 8/9 to 16/17 years).

RESULTS

A pubertal timing × SB status interaction predicted emotional distancing (T2), conflict (T2, T5), and depressive symptoms (T4), such that early maturing girls without SB reported the greatest increase in each outcome. Main effects of pubertal timing predicted emotional distancing (T4), conflict (T4), and depressive symptoms (T2, T3, T5). Findings were not always consistent across reporters, assessments of pubertal timing, and time-points.

CONCLUSIONS

Although early maturing girls in both groups may experience greater psychosocial difficulties, early maturing girls without SB may be most at-risk. The somewhat reduced impact of early pubertal timing in girls with SB is discussed.

Parenting, autonomy and self-care of adolescents with Type 1 diabetes

BACKGROUND

During adolescence diabetes creates a juncture of very complex disease management demands with developmental needs, including the striving of adolescents for greater autonomy. Parents' concerns and fears about the teen's diabetes self-management abilities during this time can heighten parental attachment behaviour and affect the parents' ability to support autonomy development necessary for effective self-care. Maternal parenting processes may be especially important for those adolescents who have Type 1 diabetes because mothers are the primary caregivers.

PURPOSE

Based on attachment theory, the aim was to test a model of the influence of mother-adolescent developmental conflict, maternal separation anxiety and maternal inhibition of autonomy and relatedness on cognitive autonomy and self-care of adolescents with Type 1 diabetes.

METHOD

A total of 131 families with an adolescent, aged 11-15 years, contributed data annually across three waves. Mothers and adolescents completed paper-and-pencil measures and two interaction scenarios that were coded by trained staff from audio-tapes. The adolescent also completed a structured interview and questionnaire to assess self-care.

RESULTS

Maternal separation anxiety when adolescents were 11-15 years of age directly predicted cognitive autonomy at 1-year follow-up, and that cognitive autonomy was directly related to self-care 1 year later, but did not mediate between separation anxiety and self-care.

CONCLUSIONS

Future investigation of the influence of separation anxiety of parents on adolescent autonomy development is warranted, as well as the contribution of autonomy development to diabetes self-management behaviours of adolescents.

Autonomy and Relatedness in Inner-City Families of Substance Abusing Adolescents

This study examined parent-adolescent autonomous-relatedness functioning in inner-city, ethnic minority families of adolescents exhibiting drug abuse and related problem behaviors. Seventy-four parent-adolescent dyads completed a structured interaction task prior to the start of treatment that was coded using an established autonomous-relatedness measure. Adolescent drug use, externalizing, and internalizing behaviors were assessed. Parents and adolescents completed assessment instruments measuring parenting style and family conflict. Confirmatory factor analysis found significant differences in the underlying dimensions of parent and adolescent autonomous-relatedness in this sample versus previous samples. It was also found that autonomous-relatedness was associated with worse adolescent symptomatology and family impairment. Results based on both self-report and observational measures contribute to the understanding of key family constructs in this population and provide insight for both researchers and the treatment community.

Adolescent-parent attachment: Bonds that support healthy development

Adolescence is characterized by significant neurological, cognitive and sociopsychological development. With the advance of adolescence, the amount of time spent with parents typically drops while time spent with peers increases considerably. Nonetheless, parents continue to play a key role in influencing their adolescent's development. Adolescent-parent attachment has profound effects on cognitive, social and emotional functioning. Secure attachment is associated with less engagement in high risk behaviours, fewer mental health problems, and enhanced social skills and coping strategies. The present article provides a brief synopsis of the changes that occur during adolescence and describes what attachment is, why it continues to be important and how it is transformed during adolescence. It summarizes major findings on the impact of attachment on adolescent adjustment and discusses strategies for supporting healthy adolescent-parent attachment.

A Developmental Guide to the Organisation of Close Relationships

A developmental guide to close relationships is presented. Parent-child, sibling, friend, and romantic relationships are described along dimensions that address permanence, power, and gender. These dimensions describe relationship differences in organisational principles that encompass internal representations, social understanding, and interpersonal experiences. The concept of domain specificity is borrowed from cognitive development to address the shifting developmental dynamics of close relationships. Distinct relationships are organised around distinct socialisation tasks, so each relationship requires its own organisational system. As a consequence, different principles guide different relationships, and these organisational principles change with development.