Marital Conflict in the Context of Parental Depressive Symptoms: Implications for the Development of Children's Adjustment Problems

Parent-couple satisfaction, parent depression, and child mental health in families with autistic children

Introduction

Within two-parent households, the parent-couple subsystem (marital or romantic partner relationship) is posited to shape the mental health of both parents and children. Autistic children and their parents have an elevated-risk for mental health problems. The present study longitudinally examined the mediating role of the quality of the parent-couple relationship in time-ordered pathways between changes in the mental health problems of autistic children and in parent depression symptoms at a within-family level.

Methodology

Using four time points of data collected on 188 families of autistic children (aged 5-12 years) across 3 years, the bidirectional associations between parent-couple relationship satisfaction, parent depressive symptoms, and child internalizing and externalizing mental health problems were investigated. Two multi-group (grouped by parent gender) complete longitudinal mediation models in structural equation modeling using Mplus software were conducted.

Results

Parent-couple relationship satisfaction mediated: (1) the association between higher parent depressive symptoms and higher child internalizing mental health problems 12 months later for both mothers and fathers, and (2) the association between higher child externalizing mental health problems and higher father depression symptoms 12 months later. Father depression symptoms mediated a pathway from lower parent-couple satisfaction to higher child internalizing mental health problems 12 months later, and mother depression symptoms mediated the pathway from higher child externalizing mental health problems to lower parent-couple satisfaction 12 months later.

Conclusion

Findings highlight the bidirectional and complex ways that parent and child mental health and the quality of the parent-couple relationship are entwined across time in families of autistic children. Family-wide interventions that address the needs of multiple family members and family systems are best suited to improve the mental health of parents and autistic children.

Parental depressive symptoms across the first three years of a child's life and emotional and behavioural problem trajectories in children and adolescents

BACKGROUND

The risk associated with parental perinatal depressive symptoms and the continuum of emotional and behavioural problems in offspring is unclear. This study aimed to investigate the association between maternal and paternal perinatal depressive symptoms and behavioural problem trajectories in offspring aged 3-16 years.

METHODS

We used data from the Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children (ALSPAC) in Bristol, Avon, United Kingdom (UK). Parental perinatal depressive symptoms in the first three years of a child's life were measured using the Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale (EPDS). Offspring emotional- and behavioural problems were measured using the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ) when the child was 3.5, 7, 9, 11, and 16 years. A group-based trajectory modelling was used to identify the distinct trajectories of emotional and behavioural problems. Multinomial logistic regression analyses were used to examine associations, and z-scores were calculated to compare maternal and paternal associations.

RESULTS

We identified three trajectories of emotional and behavioural problems in offspring between the ages of 3.5 and 16: low, moderate and high symptom trajectories. We found that maternal and paternal antenatal and postnatal depressive symptoms were associated with high levels of emotional and behavioural problem trajectories in offspring. We also found that children exposed to maternal (_adjusted RR = 8.11; 95% CI: 5.26-12.48) and paternal (_adjusted RR = 2.32; 1.05-5.14) persistent depressive symptoms were more likely to be in high levels of total behavioural problem trajectory group than in the normal trajectory group. The maternal-effect was stronger (p < 0.001).

CONCLUSION

Our findings suggest that exposure to parental depressive symptoms were associated with high levels of emotional and behavioural problem trajectories in offspring, with the maternal effect being stronger than the paternal effect.

Risk and Protective Pathways to Peer Victimization from Infancy to Adolescence: Role of Fathers

This study examined the developmental pathways from fathers' psychopathology in early childhood to child peer victimization (bullying and cyber victimization) in late adolescence via family relationships and early adolescent psychosocial functioning (anxiety, emotion regulation, social problems). A conceptual model with pathways through inter-parental aggression and fathers' parenting (harshness and sensitivity) was tested. Participants were 227 families (51% female children recruited as infants) who participated in a longitudinal study examining the role of parental alcohol problems and associated risks on developmental and family processes from infancy to late adolescence. Multi-method (observational, parent report, adolescent report) assessments of family processes and child outcomes were conducted across all time points. Fathers' alcohol problems and depressive symptoms in early childhood was prospectively associated with inter-parental aggression in middle childhood and social problems in early adolescence. For boys only, early adolescent social problems were predictive of bullying victimization. Fathers' antisocial behavior in early childhood was associated with less sensitive parenting in middle childhood. Fathers' sensitivity in middle childhood was protective, being associated with lower cyber victimization in late adolescence. Fathers' sensitivity was also associated with higher emotion regulation in early adolescence; however, counter to expectations, higher emotion regulation was associated with more bullying and cyber victimization. Findings shed light on differences in the etiological pathways to bullying and cyber victimization, as well as how distinct forms of paternal psychopathology in early childhood associate with family relationships, child adjustment, and vulnerability to peer victimization in late adolescence.

The effects of paternal perinatal depression on socioemotional and behavioral development of children: A meta-analysis of prospective studies

A meta-analysis was conducted to analyze the literature concerning the effects of paternal perinatal depression (PPND) on socioemotional and behavioral development in children. We assessed the literature using searches in PubMed, Web of Science, the Cochrane Library, and Embase from inception to November 2019 and supplemented it by manual searches. Two authors independently selected the eligible studies and extracted data, and three authors assessed the quality of the studies. To explore the effects of PPND on a child's socioemotional and behavioral development, a random-effects meta-analysis was conducted, followed by the construction of a funnel plot. Nine studies were included for review. The pooled odds ratio (OR) of behavioral problems in children with PPND as compared to non-PPND was 1.209 (95% CI: 1.137-1.285), the pooled OR of emotional problems in children with PPND was 1.265 (95% CI: 1.180-1.356), and the pooled OR of social functions in children with PPND was OR=1.299 (95% CI: 0.972-1.736). PPND may play a significant role in adversely impacting the emotional and behavioral development in children during early childhood. Thus, interventions for PPND should be initiated to make up the negative effect of PPND on a child's emotional and behavioral development.

Maternal and Paternal Depressive Symptoms, Home Learning Environment, and Children's Early Literacy

The present study examined the influence of mothers' and fathers' depressive symptoms on children's early literacy skills. Home learning-related parenting (HLE) was examined as a mediator of these associations. Families (N = 465) were recruited through preschools. Results indicate an actor effect of fathers', but not mothers', depressive symptoms on HLE parenting such that fathers who reported more depressive symptoms engaged in fewer HLE activities. A partner effect of fathers' depressive symptoms on HLE parenting indicated that higher levels of fathers' depressive symptoms were associated with lower levels of mothers' home learning activities. Finally, fathers' depressive symptoms negatively related to children's early literacy skills indirectly through mothers' HLE parenting. Findings highlight a process of negative effect of parent depressive symptoms on children's early literacy and emphasize including both mothers and fathers in future research concerned with the influence of parents' depressive symptoms on children's development.

Changes in Couple Relationship Dynamics among Low-Income Parents in a Relationship Education Program Are Associated with Decreases in Their Children's Mental Health Symptoms

Witnessing intimate partner violence (IPV) among parents negatively impacts millions of children in the United States each year. Low-income families are disproportionately affected by IPV compared to middle- and high-income individuals, and are beginning to be the focus of IPV secondary prevention interventions, including relationship education programs. Despite these developments, few studies have examined changes in psychosocial functioning among children of parents participating in relationship education programs. The current study examined the extent to which changes in specific couple dynamics among individuals from low-income backgrounds participating in a couple relationship education program, Within My Reach, were associated with changes in child mental health symptoms. A second purpose of this paper is to examine whether changes in parent–child relationship quality mediates the association between changes in couple dynamics and changes in child mental health difficulties. Participants (n = 347) were parents who participated in Within My Reach as part of programming offered at a large community agency. Decreases in negative couple conflict behaviors, including conflict engagement, withdrawal and compliance, over the course of the program were linked to decreases in child mental health difficulties. In addition, increases in parent–child relationship quality partially mediated the associations between decreases in compliance, as well as increase in overall couple relationship quality, and decreases in child symptoms. Community-based couple relationship education programs for low-income families can potentially have multiple positive impacts throughout the family system, including for children.

The effects of paternal depression on child and adolescent outcomes: A systematic review

BACKGROUND

Paternal depression has been associated with suboptimal developmental outcomes in offspring. We sought to systematically review the research evidence from prospective studies for an association between paternal depression and child adolescent emotional and behavioral outcomes. We also reviewed potential mediators of this association and sources of methodological bias.

METHODS

A systematic review was conducted using the following databases: Medline, EMBASE, PsycINFO and Google Scholar. Reference lists of the included papers were also searched.

RESULTS

Twenty-one studies were included in the review. Findings suggested that paternal depression does negatively impact upon offspring development. This impact is observable when paternal depression is present in the antenatal and postnatal stages and during offspring adolescence. The strength of this association is strongly reliant upon a number of contextual mediators, namely; paternal negative expressiveness, hostility and involvement and marital conflict. A quality assessment rating showed the studies were relatively strong methodologically.

LIMITATIONS

Heterogeneity regarding method of assessment and the magnitude and timing of exposure hinder attempts to make strong conclusions regarding the trajectory of paternal depression and its effects on child and adolescent outcomes.

CONCLUSIONS

Paternal mental health screening during pregnancy is necessary in order to identify and prevent depression negatively impacting offspring functioning. Including both parents in this process should encourage the alleviation of the environmental mediators which dominate the negative association outlined within the review. Research examining gene-environment interaction is necessary to uncover more accurate details regarding paternal depression and subsequent offspring vulnerability.

Couple comorbidity and correlates of postnatal depressive symptoms in mothers and fathers in the first two weeks following delivery

BACKGROUND

Postnatal depression affects a significant number of parents; however, its co-occurrence in mothers and fathers has not been studied extensively. Identifying predictors and correlates of postnatal depressive symptoms can help develop effective interventions.

METHODS

Questionnaires on several socio-demographic and psychosocial factors were administered to 276 couples within two weeks after birth. Depressive symptoms in mothers and fathers were assessed using the Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale (EPDS). After calculating the correlation coefficient between mothers and fathers' EPDS scores, univariate and multivariate linear regression analyses were performed to identify significant correlates of postnatal depressive symptoms in mothers and fathers.

RESULTS

Prevalence of maternal and paternal postnatal depressive symptoms was 15.9% (EPDS>12) and 5.4% (EPDS>10), respectively. There was a moderate positive correlation between mothers and fathers' EPDS scores (r=.30, p<.001). Multivariate analyses indicated that parental stress was the strongest predictor for maternal and paternal postnatal depressive symptoms. Pregnancy- and birth-related distress and partners' EPDS scores were also associated with depressive symptoms in both parents. Relationship satisfaction was only inversely related with fathers' EPDS scores, while mothers' EPDS scores were additionally associated with critical life events, history of childhood violence, and birth-related physiological complaints.

LIMITATIONS

Since information about participation rates (those who declined) is unavailable, we cannot rule out sampling bias. Further, some psychosocial factors were assessed using single items.

CONCLUSION

Since co-occurrence of depressive symptoms in mothers and fathers is high, developing and evaluating postnatal depression interventions for couples may be beneficial. Interventions to reduce parenting stress may help prevent parental postnatal depression.

Parental depressive symptoms and adolescent adjustment: a prospective test of an explanatory model for the role of marital conflict

Despite calls for process-oriented models for child maladjustment due to heightened marital conflict in the context of parental depressive symptoms, few longitudinal tests of the mechanisms underlying these relations have been conducted. Addressing this gap, the present study examined multiple factors longitudinally that link parental depressive symptoms to adolescent adjustment problems, building on a conceptual model informed by emotional security theory (EST). Participants were from 320 families (158 boys, 162 girls), including mothers and fathers, who took part when their children were in kindergarten (T1), second (T2), seventh (T3), eighth (T4) and ninth (T5) grades. Parental depressive symptoms (T1) were related to changes in adolescents' externalizing and internalizing symptoms (T5), as mediated by parents' negative emotional expressiveness (T2), marital conflict (T3), and emotional insecurity (T4). Evidence was thus advanced for emotional insecurity as an explanatory process in the context of parental depressive symptoms.

Epigenetic vestiges of early developmental adversity: childhood stress exposure and DNA methylation in adolescence

Fifteen-year-old adolescents (N = 109) in a longitudinal study of child development were recruited to examine differences in DNA methylation in relation to parent reports of adversity during the adolescents' infancy and preschool periods. Microarray technology applied to 28,000 cytosine-guanine dinucleotide sites within DNA derived from buccal epithelial cells showed differential methylation among adolescents whose parents reported high levels of stress during their children's early lives. Maternal stressors in infancy and paternal stressors in the preschool years were most strongly predictive of differential methylation, and the patterning of such epigenetic marks varied by children's gender. To the authors' knowledge, this is the first report of prospective associations between adversities in early childhood and the epigenetic conformation of adolescents' genomic DNA.

Longitudinal Associations between Parental and Children's Depressive Symptoms in the Context of Interparental Relationship Functioning

Using longitudinal, multi-informant data from the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development Study of Early Child Care and Youth Development, the present study tested associations between trajectories of parental and child depressive symptoms from ages 11 to 15 years. Consistent with predictions, changes in mothers' and fathers' depressive symptoms were positively associated with change in children's depressive symptoms over time. In addition, youth characteristics of sex and pubertal development moderated the trajectories, with children more advanced on pubertal development showing higher initial levels of depressive symptoms, and girls demonstrating steeper slopes of depressive symptoms over time. The context of interparental relationship functioning (i.e., marital conflict, marital conflict resolution) moderated both the trajectories of child depressive symptoms and the interplay between parental and child depressive symptoms in ways largely consistent with hypotheses. Implications of the findings are discussed in terms of treating youth depressive symptoms with a consideration of the broader family context, including parental and interparental functioning.

Paternal depression: an examination of its links with father, child and family functioning in the postnatal period

BACKGROUND

Maternal depression is common and is known to affect both maternal and child health. One of the mechanisms by which maternal depression exerts its effects on child health is through an increased rate of parental disharmony. Fathers also experience depression, but the impact of this on family functioning has been less studied. The aim of this study was to investigate the association between paternal depressive disorder and family and child functioning, in the first 3 months of a child's life.

METHODS

A controlled study comparing individual and familial outcomes in fathers with (n = 54) and without diagnosed depressive disorder (n = 99). Parental couple functioning and child temperament were assessed by both paternal and maternal report.

RESULTS

Depression in fathers is associated with an increased risk of disharmony in partner relationships, reported by both fathers and their partners, controlling for maternal depression. Few differences in infant's reported temperament were found in the early postnatal period.

CONCLUSIONS

These findings emphasize the importance of considering the potential for men, as well as women, to experience depression in the postnatal period. Paternal symptoms hold the potential to impact upon fathers, their partners, and their children.