Canine distemper virus infection of primary hippocampal cells induces increase in extracellular glutamate and neurodegeneration

Neurotoxic potential of reactive astrocytes in canine distemper demyelinating leukoencephalitis

Canine distemper virus (CDV) causes a fatal demyelinating leukoencephalitis in young dogs resembling human multiple sclerosis. Astrocytes are the main cellular target of CDV and undergo reactive changes already in pre-demyelinating brain lesions. Based on their broad range of beneficial and detrimental effects in the injured brain reactive astrogliosis is in need of intensive investigation. The aim of the study was to characterize astrocyte plasticity during the course of CDV-induced demyelinating leukoencephalitis by the aid of immunohistochemistry, immunofluorescence and gene expression analysis. Immunohistochemistry revealed the presence of reactive glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP)+ astrocytes with increased survivin and reduced aquaporin 4, and glutamine synthetase protein levels, indicating disturbed blood brain barrier function, glutamate homeostasis and astrocyte maladaptation, respectively. Gene expression analysis revealed 81 differentially expressed astrocyte-related genes with a dominance of genes associated with neurotoxic A1-polarized astrocytes. Accordingly, acyl-coA synthetase long-chain family member 5+/GFAP+, and serglycin+/GFAP+ cells, characteristic of A1-astrocytes, were found in demyelinating lesions by immunofluorescence. In addition, gene expression revealed a dysregulation of astrocytic function including disturbed glutamate homeostasis and altered immune function. Observed findings indicate an astrocyte polarization towards a neurotoxic phenotype likely contributing to lesion initiation and progression in canine distemper leukoencephalitis.

Expression of canine distemper virus receptor nectin-4 in the central nervous system of dogs

Canine distemper virus (CDV) exhibits lymphotropic, epitheliotropic, and neurotropic nature, and causes a severe systemic infection in susceptible animals. Initially, signaling lymphocyte activation molecule (SLAM) expressed on immune cells has been identified as a crucial cellular receptor for CDV. Currently, nectin-4 expressed in epithelia has been shown to be another receptor for CDV. Our previous study demonstrated that neurons express nectin-4 and are infected with CDV. In this study, we investigated the distribution pattern of nectin-4 in various cell types in the canine central nervous system and showed its relation to CDV infection to further clarify the pathology of disease. Histopathological, immunohistochemical and immunofluorescent analyses were done using formalin-fixed paraffin-embedded tissues of CDV-infected dogs. Dual staining of nectin-4 and CDV antigen or nectin-4 and brain cell markers was performed. Nectin-4 was detected in ependymal cells, epithelia of choroid plexus, meningeal cells, neurons, granular cells, and Purkinje's cells. CDV antigens were detected in these nectin-4-positive cells, further suggesting contribution of nectin-4 for the CDV neurovirulence. On the other hand, astrocytes did not express nectin-4, although they were frequently infected with CDV. Since astrocytes are negative for SLAM expression, they must express an unidentified CDV receptor, which also contributes to CDV neurovirulence.

Morbillivirus glycoprotein expression induces ER stress, alters Ca2+ homeostasis and results in the release of vasostatin

Although the pathology of Morbillivirus in the central nervous system (CNS) is well described, the molecular basis of neurodegenerative events still remains poorly understood. As a model to explore Morbillivirus-mediated CNS dysfunctions, we used canine distemper virus (CDV) that we inoculated into two different cell systems: a monkey cell line (Vero) and rat primary hippocampal neurons. Importantly, the recombinant CDV used in these studies not only efficiently infects both cell types but recapitulates the uncommon, non-cytolytic cell-to-cell spread mediated by virulent CDVs in brain of dogs. Here, we demonstrated that both CDV surface glycoproteins (F and H) markedly accumulated in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER). This accumulation triggered an ER stress, characterized by increased expression of the ER resident chaperon calnexin and the proapoptotic transcription factor CHOP/GADD 153. The expression of calreticulin (CRT), another ER resident chaperon critically involved in the response to misfolded proteins and in Ca(2+) homeostasis, was also upregulated. Transient expression of recombinant CDV F and H surface glycoproteins in Vero cells and primary hippocampal neurons further confirmed a correlation between their accumulation in the ER, CRT upregulation, ER stress and disruption of ER Ca(2+) homeostasis. Furthermore, CDV infection induced CRT fragmentation with re-localisation of a CRT amino-terminal fragment, also known as vasostatin, on the surface of infected and neighbouring non-infected cells. Altogether, these results suggest that ER stress, CRT fragmentation and re-localization on the cell surface may contribute to cytotoxic effects and ensuing cell dysfunctions triggered by Morbillivirus, a mechanism that might potentially be relevant for other neurotropic viruses.

Differential regulation of voltage-gated Ca2+ currents and metabotropic glutamate receptor activity by measles virus infection in rat cortical neurons

Measles virus (MV) infection may lead to severe chronic CNS disease processes, including MV-induced encephalitis. Because the intracellular Ca(2+) concentration ([Ca(2+)](i)) is a major determinant of the (patho-)physiological state in all cells we asked whether important Ca(2+) conducting pathways are affected by MV infection in cultured cortical rat neurons. Patch-clamp measurements revealed a decrease in voltage-gated Ca(2+) currents during MV-infection, while voltage-gated K(+) currents and NMDA-evoked currents were unaffected. Calcium-imaging experiments using 50mM extracellular KCl showed reduced [Ca(2+)](i) increases in MV-infected neurons, confirming a decreased activity of voltage-gated Ca(2+) channels. In contrast, the group-I metabotropic glutamate receptor (mGluR) agonist DHPG evoked changes in [Ca(2+)](i) that were increased in MV-infected cells. Our results show that MV infection conversely regulates Ca(2+) signals induced by group-I mGluRs and by voltage-gated Ca(2+) channels, suggesting that these physiological impairments may contribute to an altered function of cortical neurons during MV-induced encephalitis.

Atypical necrotizing encephalitis associated with systemic canine distemper virus infection in pups

This report describes the naturally occurring atypical neuropathological manifestation of systemic canine distemper virus (CDV) infection in two 16-day-old Pit Bull pups. CDV-induced changes affected the gray and white matter of the forebrain while sparing the hindbrain. Histologically, there was necrosis with destruction of the nervous parenchyma due to an influx of inflammatory and reactive cells associated with eosinophilic intranuclear inclusion bodies within glial cells. Positive immunoreactivity against CDV antigens was predominantly observed within astrocytes and neurons. RT-PCR was used to amplify CDV-specific amplicons from brain fragments. These findings suggest the participation of CDV in the etiopathogenesis of these lesions.

NADPH oxidase links endoplasmic reticulum stress, oxidative stress, and PKR activation to induce apoptosis

The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is a cellular membrane organelle that plays important roles in virus replication and maturation. Accumulating evidence indicates that virus infection often disturbs ER homeostasis and leads to ER stress, which is associated with a variety of prevalent diseases. To cope with the deleterious effects of virus-induced ER stress, cells activate critical signaling pathways including the unfolded protein response (UPR) and intrinsic mitochondrial apoptosis, which have complex effects on virus replication and pathogenesis. In this review, we present a comprehensive summary of recent research in this field, which revealed that about 36 viruses trigger ER stress and differentially activate ER stress-related signaling pathways. We also highlight the strategies evolved by viruses to modulate ER stress-related signaling networks including immune responses in order to ensure their survival and pathogenesis. Together, the knowledge gained from this field will shed light on unveiling the mechanisms of virus replication and pathogenesis and provide insight for future research as well as antiviral development.

Increase of pro-inflammatory cytokine expression in non-demyelinating early cerebral lesions in nervous canine distemper

Canine distemper virus (CDV) infection of the central nervous system results in lesions of the gray and white matter. While a biphasic disease process has been discussed for leukoencephalitis with a prominent loss of viral protein expression, polioencephalitis has been associated with virus persistence. Using semi-quantitative reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR), expression of pro- and anti-inflammatory cytokines such as interleukin (IL)-1beta, IL-2, IL-6, IL-8, IL-10, IL-12, tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF)-alpha, interferon (IFN)-gamma, and transforming growth factor (TGF)-beta were studied in the cerebra of distemper dogs with white matter lesions in the cerebellum. Additionally, cytokine values were correlated with the degree of CDV infection, major histocompatibility complex class II (MHC II) expression, and infiltration of CD4-, CD8-, and CD3epsilon-positive lymphocytes. Cerebral CDV infection was not associated with detectable light microscopic lesions or infiltration of B and T lymphocytes. However, an increasing number of CDV-antigen-positive cells was associated with an upregulation of MHC II antigen. RT-PCR results revealed a significant upregulation of IL-6, IL-8, IL-12, and TNF-alpha in the cerebra of distemper dogs, whereas IL-10 and TGF-beta showed no significant increase. Elevated cytokine values were directly related to the presence of CDV antigen and MHC II upregulation. However, succeeding increases of the latter did not result in an additional proportional elevation of cytokine expression values. In summary, the present study demonstrates the expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines by resident neural cells following CDV infection. Furthermore, the lack of light microscopic changes indicates that additional factors besides cytokines are necessary for the development of a distemper-characteristic neuropathology.