Exacerbation of DSS-induced colitis in mice lacking kinin B(1) receptors through compensatory up-regulation of kinin B(2) receptors: the role of tight junctions and intestinal homeostasis

Dextran sodium sulfate-induced colitis in male BALB/c mice leads to albuminuria and increased markers of inflammation and tissue damage in the kidney

Inflammatory molecules originating from an inflamed gut can promote systemic inflammation. We studied how acute intestinal injury affects the kidneys and the kallikrein-kinin system in mice with dextran sodium sulfate (DSS)-induced colitis. Seven-week-old male BALB/c mice were treated with 5% DSS for 7 days and either sacrificed immediately (DSS7, n = 6) or given fresh water for 4 more days (DSS11, n = 6). Untreated mice (n = 6) served as controls. Colitis and kidney damage was assessed using histochemical and immunohistochemical staining, ELISA, and RT-qPCR. Markers of kidney injury correlated with markers of colitis. Colitis increased albuminuria, reduced kidney weight, and induced transcription of lipocalin 2, kidney injury molecule-1, and interleukin-1beta, as well as increased immunostaining signal of c-Jun and NF-κB p65 in the kidneys. Colitis caused strong induction of colonic kininogen 2 transcription and bradykinin receptor B1-positive cells in the disrupted mucosa. In the kidney, colitis induced localization of tubular bradykinin receptor B2 to the nuclear envelope and increased kininogen 2 transcription. Disruption of the intestinal barrier by DSS promotes markers of kidney injury and inflammation, and the degree of kidney injury correlates with the severity of colitis. Colitis is associated with increased expression of kallikrein-kinin components in both the colon and kidneys.

Kinin B1 receptor deficiency protects mice fed by cafeteria diet from abnormal glucose homeostasis

The kallikrein–kinin system has been implicated in body weight and glucose homeostasis. Their major effectors act by binding to the kinin B2 and B1 receptors. It was assessed the role of the kinin B1 receptor in weight and glucose homeostasis in B1 receptor knockout mice (B1RKO) subjected to a cafeteria diet (CAF). Wild-type (WT) and B1RKO male mice (C57BL/6 background; 8 weeks old) were fed a standard diet (SD) or CAF for 14 weeks, ad libitum, and four groups were formed: WT-SD; B1RKO-SD; WT-CAF; B1RKO-CAF. Body weight and food intake were assessed weekly. It was performed glucose tolerance (GTT) and insulin tolerance tests (ITT), and HOMA-IR, HOMA-β and HOMA-β* 1/HOMA-IR were calculated. Islets from WT and B1RKO were isolated in order to measure the insulin secretion. Western blot was used to assess the hepatic AKT phosphorylation and qPCR to assess gene expression. CAF induced a higher body mass gain in B1RKO compared to WT mice. CAF diet increased epididymal fat depot mass, hepatic fat infiltration and hepatic AKT phosphorylation in both genotypes. However, B1RKO mice presented lower glycemic response during GTT when fed with CAF, and a lower glucose decrease in the ITT. This higher resistance was overcomed with higher insulin secretion when stimulated by high glucose, resulting in higher glucose uptake in the GTT when submitted to CAF, despite lower insulin sensitivity. Islets from B1RKO delivered 4 times more insulin in 3-month-old mice than islets from WT. The higher insulin disposition index and high insulin delivery of B1RKO can explain the decreased glucose excursion during GTT. In conclusion, CAF increased the β-cell function in B1RKO mice, compensated by the diet-induced insulin resistance and resulting in a healthier glycemic response despite the higher weight gain.

The pathogens of secondary infection in septic patients share a similar genotype to those that predominate in the gut

Background

Secondary nosocomial infections, which are commonly caused by carbapenem-resistant Klebsiella pneumoniae (CRKP) and vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus faecium (VRE), often develop in septic patients. This study aimed to identify the origin of secondary systemic pathogens and reveal the underlying mechanism of infection.

Methods

In this prospective, observational case–control study, a total of 34 septic patients, 33 non-septic intensive care unit (ICU) patients and 10 healthy individuals serving as controls were enrolled. Three hundred and twelve fecal samples were collected and subjected to 16S rRNA gene amplicon sequencing. Metagenome sequencing was performed to identify the homology between dominant CRKP or VRE in the intestine and pathogens isolated from secondary infectious sites. C57/BL mice were established as pseudo germ-free animal model by pretreatment with broad-spectrum antibiotics for two weeks.

Results

The abundance and diversity of the gut microbiota in septic patients was drastically decreased one week after ICU admission, potentially leading to the enrichment of antibiotic-resistant bacteria, such as CRKP. Furthermore, secondary bloodstream and abdominal infections caused by CRKP or VRE in septic patients occurred after intestinal colonization with the predominant bacterial species. Genomic analysis showed that bacteria isolated from secondary infection had high homology with the corresponding predominant intestinal opportunistic pathogens. In addition, animal model experiments validated the hypothesis that the administration of antibiotics caused the enrichment of CRKP and VRE among the intestinal microbiota, increasing the likelihood of permeation of other tissues and potentially causing subsequent systemic infection in pseudo germ-free mice.

Conclusion

Our study indicated that the pathogens causing secondary infection in septic patients might originate from the intestinal colonization of pathogens following broad-spectrum antibiotic treatment.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s13054-022-03943-z.

The versatile role of the contact system in cardiovascular disease, inflammation, sepsis and cancer

The human contact system consists of plasma proteins, which - after contact to foreign surfaces - are bound to them, thereby activating the zymogens of the system into enzymes. This activation mechanism gave the system its name - contact system. It is considered as a procoagulant and proinflammatory response mechanism, as activation finally leads to the generation of fibrin and bradykinin. To date, no physiological processes have been described that are mediated by contact activation. However, contact system factors play a pathophysiological role in numerous diseases, such as cardiovascular diseases, arthritis, colitis, sepsis, and cancer. Contact system factors are therefore an interesting target for new therapeutic options in different clinical conditions.

Blockade of the kinin B1 receptor counteracts the depressive-like behaviour and mechanical allodynia in ovariectomised mice

Menopause is related to a decline in ovarian oestrogen production, affecting the perception of the somatosensory stimuli, changing the immune-inflammatory systems, and triggering depressive symptoms. It has been demonstrated that the inhibition of the kinin B₁ and B₂ receptors (B₁R and B₂R) prevented the depressive-like behaviour and the mechanical allodynia that was induced by immune-inflammatory mediators in mice. However, there is no evidence regarding the role of the kinin receptors in the depressive-like and nociceptive behaviour in female mice that were subjected to bilateral ovariectomy (OVX). This study has shown that the OVX mice developed time-related mechanical allodynia, together with an increased immobility time as indicative of depression. Both of these changes were reduced by the genetic deletion of B₁R, or by the pharmacological blockade of the selective kinin B₁R antagonist R-715 (acute, i.p.). The genetic deletion or the pharmacological inhibition of B₂R (HOE 140, i.p.) did not prevent the OVX-elicited behavioural changes. The data has suggested a particular modulation of kinin B₁R in the nociceptive and depressive-like behaviour in the OVX mice. The selective inhibition of the B₁R receptor may be a new pharmacological target for treating pain and depression symptoms in women during the perimenopause/menopause period.

Activation of the Kinin B1 Receptor by Its Agonist Reduces Melanoma Metastasis by Playing a Dual Effect on Tumor Cells and Host Immune Response

Metastatic melanoma is an aggressive type of skin cancer leading half of the patients to death within 8–10 months after diagnosis. Kinins are peptides that interact with B1 and B2 receptors playing diverse biological roles. We investigated whether treatment with B1 receptor agonist, des-Arg⁹-bradykinin (DABK), has effects in lung metastasis establishment after melanoma induction in mice. We found a lower number of metastatic colonies in lungs of DABK-treated mice, reduced expression of vascular cell adhesion molecule 1 (VCAM-1), and increased CD8⁺T-cell recruitment to the metastatic area compared to animals that did not receive treatment. To understand whether the effects of DABK observed were due to the activation of the B1 receptor in the tumor cells or in the host, we treated wild-type (WT) and kinin B1 receptor knockout (B1^−/−) mice with DABK. No significant differences in the number of melanoma colonies established in lungs were seen between WT and B1^−/−mice; however, B1^−/−mice presented higher VCAM-1 expression and lower CD8⁺T-cell infiltration. In conclusion, we believe that activation of kinin B1 receptor by its agonist in the host stimulates the immune response more efficiently, promoting CD8⁺T-cell recruitment to the metastatic lungs and interfering in VCAM-1 expression. Moreover, treatment with DABK reduced establishment of metastatic colonies by mainly acting on tumor cells; hence, this study brings insights to explore novel approaches to treat metastatic melanoma targeting the B1 receptor.

Bradykinin receptor deficiency or antagonism do not impact the host response during gram-negative pneumonia-derived sepsis

BACKGROUND

Kinins are short peptides with a wide range of proinflammatory properties that are generated from kininogens in the so-called kallikrein-kinin system. Kinins exert their biological activities through stimulation of two distinct receptor subtypes, the kinin or bradykinin B1 and B2 receptors (B1R, B2R). Acute challenge models have implicated B1R and B2R in the pathogenesis of sepsis. However, their role in the host response during sepsis originating from the lung is not known.

RESULTS

To determine the role of B1R and B2R in pneumonia-derived sepsis, B1R/B2R-deficient mice and wild-type mice treated with the B1R antagonist R-715 or the B2R antagonist HOE-140 were studied after infection with the common gram-negative pathogen Klebsiella pneumoniae via the airways. Neither B1R/B2R deficiency nor B1R or B2R inhibition influenced bacterial growth at the primary site of infection or dissemination to distant body sites. In addition, B1R/B2R deficiency or inhibition did not impact local or systemic inflammatory responses during Klebsiella induced pneumosepsis.

CONCLUSIONS

These data argue against an important role for kinins in the host response to pneumonia-derived sepsis caused by a clinically relevant pathogen.

Androgen and Androgen Receptor as Enhancers of M2 Macrophage Polarization in Allergic Lung Inflammation

Allergic asthma is a disease initiated by a breach of the lung mucosal barrier and an inappropriate Th2 inflammatory immune response that results in M2 polarization of alveolar macrophages (AM). The number of M2 macrophages in the airway correlates with asthma severity in humans. Sex differences in asthma suggest that sex hormones modify lung inflammation and macrophage polarization. Asthmatic women have more M2 macrophages than asthmatic men and androgens have been used as an experimental asthma treatment. In this study, we demonstrate that although androgen (dihydrotestosterone) reconstitution of castrated mice reduced lung inflammation in a mouse model of allergic lung inflammation, it enhanced M2 polarization of AM. This indicates a cell-specific role for androgens. Dihydrotestosterone also enhanced IL-4-stimulated M2 macrophage polarization in vitro. Using mice lacking androgen receptor (AR) in monocytes/macrophages (AR^floxLysMCre), we found that male but not female mice exhibited less eosinophil recruitment and lung inflammation due to impaired M2 polarization. There was a reduction in eosinophil-recruiting chemokines and IL-5 in AR-deficient AM. These data reveal an unexpected and novel role for androgen/AR in promoting M2 macrophage polarization. Our findings are also important for understanding pathology in diseases promoted by M2 macrophages and androgens, such as asthma, eosinophilic esophagitis, and prostate cancer, and for designing new approaches to treatment.

The Biased G-Protein-Coupled Receptor Agonism Bridges the Gap between the Insulin Receptor and the Metabolic Syndrome

Insulin signaling, as mediated through the insulin receptor (IR), plays a critical role in metabolism. Aberrations in this signaling cascade lead to several pathologies, the majority of which are classified under the umbrella term "metabolic syndrome". Although many of these pathologies are associated with insulin resistance, the exact mechanisms are not well understood. One area of current interest is the possibility of G-protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) influencing or regulating IR signaling. This concept is particularly significant, because GPCRs have been shown to participate in cross-talk with the IR. More importantly, GPCR signaling has also been shown to preferentially regulate specific downstream signaling targets through GPCR agonist bias. A novel study recently demonstrated that this GPCR-biased agonism influences the activity of the IR without the presence of insulin. Although GPCR-IR cross-talk has previously been established, the notion that GPCRs can regulate the activation of the IR is particularly significant in relation to metabolic syndrome and other pathologies that develop as a result of alterations in IR signaling. As such, we aim to provide an overview of the physiological and pathophysiological roles of the IR within metabolic syndrome and its related pathologies, including cardiovascular health, gut microflora composition, gastrointestinal tract functioning, polycystic ovarian syndrome, pancreatic cancer, and neurodegenerative disorders. Furthermore, we propose that the GPCR-biased agonism may perhaps mediate some of the downstream signaling effects that further exacerbate these diseases for which the mechanisms are currently not well understood.

Relationship between G proteins coupled receptors and tight junctions

Tight junctions (TJs) are sites of cell-cell adhesion, constituted by a cytoplasmic plaque of molecules linked to integral proteins that form a network of strands around epithelial and endothelial cells at the uppermost portion of the lateral membrane. TJs maintain plasma membrane polarity and form channels and barriers that regulate the transit of ions and molecules through the paracellular pathway. This structure that regulates traffic between the external milieu and the organism is affected in numerous pathological conditions and constitutes an important target for therapeutic intervention. Here, we describe how a wide array of G protein-coupled receptors that are activated by diverse stimuli including light, ions, hormones, peptides, lipids, nucleotides and proteases, signal through heterotrimeric G proteins, arrestins and kinases to regulate TJs present in the blood-brain barrier, the blood-retinal barrier, renal tubular cells, keratinocytes, lung and colon, and the slit diaphragm of the glomerulus.

The Gut-Kidney Axis: Putative Interconnections Between Gastrointestinal and Renal Disorders

Diabetic kidney disease (DKD) is a devastating condition associated with increased morbidity and premature mortality. The etiology of DKD is still largely unknown. However, the risk of DKD development and progression is most likely modulated by a combination of genetic and environmental factors. Patients with autoimmune diseases, like type 1 diabetes, inflammatory bowel disease, and celiac disease, share some genetic background. Furthermore, gastrointestinal disorders are associated with an increased risk of kidney disease, although the true mechanisms have still to be elucidated. Therefore, the principal aim of this review is to evaluate the impact of disturbances in the gastrointestinal tract on the development of renal disorders.

Blockade of Bradykinin receptors worsens the dystrophic phenotype of mdx mice: differential effects for B1 and B2 receptors

The Kallikrein Kinin System (KKS) is a vasoactive peptide system with known functions in the maintenance of tissue homeostasis, renal function and blood pressure. The main effector peptide of KKS is Bradykinin (BK). This ligand has two receptors: a constitutive B2 receptor (B2R), which has been suggested to have anti-fibrotic effects in renal and cardiac models of fibrosis; and the inducible B1 receptor (B1R), whose expression is induced by damage and inflammation. Inflammation and fibrosis are hallmarks of Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD), therefore we hypothesized that the KKS may play a role in this disease. To evaluate this hypothesis we used the mdx mouse a model for DMD. We blocked the endogenous activity of the KKS by treating mdx mice with B2R antagonist (HOE-140) or B1R antagonist (DesArgLeu⁸BK (DALBK)) for four weeks. Both antagonists increased damage, fibrosis, TGF-β and Smad-dependent signaling, CTGF/CCN-2 levels as well as the number of CD68 positive inflammatory cells. B2R blockade also reduced isolated muscle contraction force. These results indicate that the endogenous KKS has a protective role in the dystrophic muscle. The KKS may be a new target for future therapies to reduce inflammation and fibrosis in dystrophic muscle.

Neuroprotective effect of kinin B1 receptor activation in acute cerebral ischemia in diabetic mice

Activation of the kallikrein-kinin system enhances cardiac and renal tolerance to ischemia. Here we investigated the effects of selective agonists of kinin B1 or B2 receptor (R) in brain ischemia-reperfusion in diabetic and non-diabetic mice. The role of endogenous kinins was assessed in tissue kallikrein deficient mice (TK^−/−). Mice underwent 60min-middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAO), eight weeks after type 1-diabetes induction. Treatment with B1R-, B2R-agonist or saline was started at reperfusion. Neurological deficit (ND), infarct size (IS), brain water content (BWC) were measured at day 0, 1 and 2 after injury. MCAO induced exaggerated ND, mortality and IS in diabetic mice. B2R-agonist increased ND and mortality to 60% and 80% in non-diabetic and diabetic mice respectively, by mechanisms involving hemodynamic failure and renal insufficiency. TK^−/− mice displayed reduced ND and IS compared to wild-type littermate, consistent with suppression of B2R activity. B1R mRNA level increased in ischemic brain but B1R-agonist had no effect on ND, mortality or IS in non-diabetic mice. In contrast, in diabetic mice, B1R-agonist tested at two doses significantly reduced ND by 42–52% and IS by 66–71%, without effect on BWC or renal function. This suggests potential therapeutic interest of B1R agonism for cerebral protection in diabetes.

Signaling pathways induced by serine proteases to increase intestinal epithelial barrier function

Changes in barrier function of the gastrointestinal tract are thought to contribute to the inflammatory bowel diseases Crohn's disease and ulcerative colitis. Previous work in our lab demonstrated that apical exposure of intestinal epithelial cell lines to serine proteases results in an increase in transepithelial electrical resistance (TER). However, the underlying mechanisms governing this response are unclear. We aimed to determine the requirement for proteolytic activity, epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) activation, and downstream intracellular signaling in initiating and maintaining enhanced barrier function following protease treatment using a canine intestinal epithelial cell line (SCBN). We also examined the role of phosphorylation of myosin regulatory light chain on the serine protease-induced increase in TER through. It was found that proteolytic activity of the serine proteases trypsin and matriptase is required to initiate and maintain the protease-mediated increase in TER. We also show that MMP-independent EGFR activation is essential to the sustained phase of the protease response, and that Src kinases may mediate EGFR transactivation. PI3-K and ERK1/2 signaling were important in reaching a maximal increase in TER following protease stimulation; however, their upstream activators are yet to be determined. CK2 inhibition prevented the increase in TER induced by serine proteases. The bradykinin B(2) receptor was not involved in the change in TER in response to serine proteases, and no change in phosphorylation of MLC was observed after trypsin or matriptase treatment. Taken together, our data show a requirement for ongoing proteolytic activity, EGFR transactivation, as well as downstream PI3-K, ERK1/2, and CK2 signaling in protease-mediated barrier enhancement of intestinal epithelial cells. The pathways mediating enhanced barrier function by proteases may be novel therapeutic targets for intestinal disorders characterized by disrupted epithelial barrier function.

Genistein improves inflammatory response and colonic function through NF-κB signal in DSS-induced colonic injury

This study aimed to investigate the protective potential of genistein in dextran sulfate sodium (DSS)-induced colonic injury in vitro and in vivo models. The results showed that DSS exposure caused growth suppression, colonic injury, inflammation, and barrier dysfunction in mice. Dietary genistein alleviated DSS-caused colonic injury via reducing colonic weight, rectal bleeding, and diarrhea ratio. Meanwhile, genistein reduced colonic inflammatory response via downregulating cytokines expression and improved colonic permeability and barrier in DSS-challenged mice. In Caco-2 cells, genistein improved cell viability and cellular permeability and inhibited DSS-induced activation of TLR4/NF-κB signal. In conclusion, genistein alleviated DSS-caused colonic injury, inflammation, and gut dysfunction, which might be associated with the TLR4/NF-κB signal.

Application of gene knockout technology in research of intestinal epithelial barrier mechanism in inflammatory bowel disease

Intestinal epithelial barrier permeability changes/increase caused by intestinal epithelial barrier damage play an important role in the pathogenesis of inflammatory bowel disease, and the maintenance of normal intestinal epithelial barrier permeability depends on the two aspects of the trans-epithelial cell pathway and the tight connection between the cells. In recent years, with the development of molecular biology technology and wide application of a variety of gene engineering technology, specific knocking out a particular gene through gene knockout technology to study the pathogenesis of the disease has become a hot research topic. In this paper, we review the application of gene knockout technology in the research of intestinal epithelial barrier trans-epithelial pathway and tight junction pathway in inflammatory bowel disease, in order to provide some ideas for further study of the pathogenesis of inflammatory bowel disease.

Photodynamic therapy relieves colitis and prevents colitis-associated carcinogenesis in mice

BACKGROUND

Inflammatory bowel diseases are incurable illnesses of the gastrointestinal tract, which substantially enhance the risk of developing colorectal carcinogenesis. Conventional photodynamic therapy is a clinically approved therapeutic modality used in the treatment of neoplastic diseases. Recent preclinical and clinical studies have shown that photodynamic therapy with low doses of photosensitizer and/or light improves inflammatory conditions, including colitis. This study aims therefore at investigating the therapeutic potential of low-dose photodynamic therapy (LDPDT) with a liposomal formulation of meta-tetra(hydroxyphenyl)chlorin (namely Foslip) in the prevention of colitis-associated cancer in mice.

METHODS

LDPDT efficacy was evaluated by endoscopic, macroscopic, and histological analysis. Myeloperoxidase levels were quantified by enzyme linked immunosorbent assay and cytokines expression by quantitative RT-PCR analysis. The integrity of the intestinal barrier was evaluated by immunostaining, and bacterial composition of the fecal microbiota was determined by 454 pyrosequencing of V3-V4 region of bacterial 16S rRNA genes.

RESULTS

LDPDT reduced intestinal tumor growth by decreasing the expression of a wide range of inflammatory mediators and by lowering neutrophil influx. LDPDT treatment prevents onset of a dysbiotic microbiota in the colitis-associated cancer model.

CONCLUSIONS

LDPDT with Foslip could be considered as a novel treatment modality to prevent colorectal carcinogenesis in patients with inflammatory bowel disease.

Genetic manipulation and genetic variation of the kallikrein-kinin system: impact on cardiovascular and renal diseases

Genetic manipulation of the kallikrein-kinin system (KKS) in mice, with either gain or loss of function, and study of human genetic variability in KKS components which has been well documented at the phenotypic and genomic level, have allowed recognizing the physiological role of KKS in health and in disease. This role has been especially documented in the cardiovascular system and the kidney. Kinins are produced at slow rate in most organs in resting condition and/or inactivated quickly. Yet the KKS is involved in arterial function and in renal tubular function. In several pathological situations, kinin production increases, kinin receptor synthesis is upregulated, and kinins play an important role, whether beneficial or detrimental, in disease outcome. In the setting of ischemic, diabetic or hemodynamic aggression, kinin release by tissue kallikrein protects against organ damage, through B2 and/or B1 bradykinin receptor activation, depending on organ and disease. This has been well documented for the ischemic or diabetic heart, kidney and skeletal muscle, where KKS activity reduces oxidative stress, limits necrosis or fibrosis and promotes angiogenesis. On the other hand, in some pathological situations where plasma prekallikrein is inappropriately activated, excess kinin release in local or systemic circulation is detrimental, through oedema or hypotension. Putative therapeutic application of these clinical and experimental findings through current pharmacological development is discussed in the chapter.

Evidence that kinin B2 receptor expression is upregulated by endothelial overexpression of B1 receptors

Bradykinin (BK) and des-Arg(9)-bradykinin (DBK) of kallikrein-kinin system exert its effects mediated by the B2 (B2R) and B1 (B1R) receptors, respectively. It was already shown that the deletion of kinin B1R or of B2R induces upregulation of the remaining receptor subtype. However studies on overexpression of B1R or B2R in transgenic animals have supported the importance of the overexpressed receptor but the expression of another receptor subtype has not been determined. Previous study described a marked vasodilatation and increased susceptibility to endotoxic shock which was associated with increased mortality in response to DBK in thoracic aorta from transgenic rat overexpressing the kinin B1R (TGR(Tie2B1)) exclusively in the endothelium. In another study, mice overexpressing B1R in multiple tissues were shown to present high susceptibility to inflammation and to lipopolysaccharide-induced endotoxic shock. Therefore the role of B2R was investigated in the thoracic aorta isolated from TGR(Tie2B1) rats overexpressing the B1R exclusively in the vascular endothelium. Our findings provided evidence for highly increased expression level of the B2R in the transgenic rats. It was reported that under endotoxic shock, these rats exhibited exaggerated hypotension, bradycardia and mortality. It can be suggested that the high mortality during the pathogenesis of endotoxic shock provoked in the transgenic TGR(Tie2B1) rats could be due to the enhanced expression of B2R associated with the overexpression of the B1R.