The peopling of modern Bosnia-Herzegovina: Y-chromosome haplogroups in the three main ethnic groups

Distribution of Y-chromosome haplogroups in Serbian population groups originating from historically and geographically significant distinct parts of the Balkan Peninsula

Our study enrolled 1200 Serbian males originating from three geographical regions in the Balkan Peninsula inhabited by Serbs: present-day Serbia, regions of Old Herzegovina and Kosovo and Metohija. These samples were genotyped using the combination of 23 Y-chromosomal short tandem repeats (Y-STRs) loci and 17 Ychromosomal single nucleotide polymorphisms (Y-SNPs) loci for the haplotype and haplogroup analysis in order to characterize in detail Y chromosome flow in the recent history. Serbia's borders have changed through history, forcing Serbs constantly to migrate to different regions of Balkan Peninsula. The most significant migration waves in the recent history towards present-day Serbia occurred from the regions of Old- Herzegovina and Kosovo and Metohija that lie in the south-west/south. High haplotype diversity and discrimination capacity were observed in all three datasets, with the highest number of unique haplotypes (381) and discrimination capacity (0.97) detected in the samples originating from the present-day Serbia. Haplogroup composition didn't differ significantly among datasets, with three dominant haplogroups (I-M170, E-P170 and R-M198), and haplogroup I-M170 being the most frequent in all three datasets. Haplogroup E-P170 was the second most dominant in the dataset originating from geographical region of Kosovo and Metohija, whereas haplogroup R-M198 was the second most prevalent in the dataset from historical region of Old Herzegovina. Based on the phylogenetic three for haplogroup I constructed within this study, haplogroup I2a1-P37.2 was the most dominant within all three datasets, especially in the dataset from historical region of Old Herzegovina, where 182 out of 400 samples were derived for SNP P37.2. Genetic distances between three groups of samples, evaluated by the Fst and Rst statistical values, and further visualized through multidimensional scaling plot, showed great genetic similarity between datasets from Old Herzegovina and present-day Serbia. Genetic difference in the haplogroup distribution and frequency between datasets from historical region of Old Herzegovina and from geographical region of Kosovo and Metohija was confirmed with highest Fst and Rst vaules. In this study we have distinguished genetic structure, diversity and haplogroup frequencies within 1200 Serbian males from three datasets, relationships among them as well as with other Balkan and European populations, which is useful for studying recent demographic history.

Mapping the Mountains of Giants: Anthropometric Data from the Western Balkans Reveal a Nucleus of Extraordinary Physical Stature in Europe

The inhabitants of the Dinaric Alps (former Yugoslavia and Albania) have long been known as people of impressive body height, but after World War II, there was a critical lack of data related to this phenomenon. This anthropological synthesis includes the measurements of 47,158 individuals (24,642 males and 22,516 females) from the period 2010−2018 and describes detailed regional differences in male stature in the Western Balkans. According to these data, young men from Montenegro (182.9 cm) are currently the tallest 18-year-olds in the world, surpassing their Dutch peers (182.4 cm), and 18-year-old boys from Dalmatia are even taller (183.7 cm) at a regional level. A continuous belt of extraordinary height means (>184 cm) stretches from the Adriatic coast of Dalmatia through Herzegovina to the central part of Montenegro. This article summarizes all the key socio-economic, nutritional, and genetic data, and offers possible explanations for this anthropological phenomenon. Since the remarkable height of the Dinaric populations cannot be connected with any commonly known environmental factor, the most probable hypothesis is genetic and links these physical characteristics with the local founder effect of Y haplogroup I-M170. Furthermore, given that both the level of socio-economic development and dietary protein quality are still sub-optimal, the local upward trend in body height has the potential to continue in the future.

Haplogroup Prediction Using Y-Chromosomal Short Tandem Repeats in the General Population of Bosnia and Herzegovina

Human Y-chromosomal haplogroups are an important tool used in population genetics and forensic genetics. A conventional method used for Y haplogroup assignment is based on a set of Y-single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) markers deployed, which exploits the low mutation rate nature of these markers. Y chromosome haplogroups can be successfully predicted from Y-short tandem repeat (STR) markers using different software packages, and this method gained much attention recently due to its labor-, time-, and cost-effectiveness. The present study was based on the analysis of a total of 480 adult male buccal swab samples collected from different regions of Bosnia and Herzegovina. Y haplogroup prediction was performed using Whit Athey’s Haplogroup Predictor, based on haplotype data on 23 Y-STR markers contained within the PowerPlex® Y23 kit. The results revealed the existence of 14 different haplogroups, with I2a, R1a, and E1b1b being the most prevalent with frequencies of 43.13, 14.79, and 14.58%, respectively. Compared to the previously published studies on Bosnian-Herzegovinian population based on Y-SNP and Y-STR data, this study represents an upgrade of molecular genetic data with a significantly larger number of samples, thus offering more accurate results and higher probability of detecting rare haplogroups.

Y chromosome genetic data defined by 23 short tandem repeats in a Serbian population on the Balkan Peninsula

BACKGROUND

Serbs mainly live in the territory of the recently re-established state of Serbia. However, the turbulent history in the Balkan Peninsula has led to settlement of Serbs not only within present day Serbia, but also in different parts of neighbouring countries.

AIM

To define polymorphisms of 23 Y-chromosomal short tandem repeat (STR) loci in a modern Serbian population from the central part of the Balkan Peninsula.

SUBJECTS AND METHODS

The reference sample consisted of 303 men declared as Serbs over three generations. Localities of the collected materials include the territories of Serbia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia and Montenegro. DNA samples were typed using the PowerPlex^®Y23 amplification kit.

RESULTS

The highest locus diversity was observed for DYS385 and DYS481. In this study the most abundant haplogroups were I2a, E1b1b, R1a and I1. The largest genetic distances between the Serbs and other close Southern Slavs were for the Macedonians and Slovenians.

CONCLUSION

This study is the first one to define STR polymorphism of Serbian people not only from Serbia but also from other parts of the Balkan Peninsula. The presented genetic data may be useful in further examinations of the genesis and genetic structuring of the present-day Serbian gene pool.

A glance of genetic relations in the Balkan populations utilizing network analysis based on in silico assigned Y-DNA haplogroups

The aim of this study is to provide an insight into Balkan populations’ genetic relations utilizing in silico analysis of Y-STR haplotypes and performing haplogroup predictions together with network analysis of the same haplotypes for visualization of the relations between chosen haplotypes and Balkan populations in general. The population dataset used in this study was obtained using 23, 17, 12, 9 and 7 Y-STR loci for 13 populations. The 13 populations include: Bosnia and Herzegovina (B&H), Croatia, Macedonia, Slovenia, Greece, Romany (Hungary), Hungary, Serbia, Montenegro, Albania, Kosovo, Romania and Bulgaria. The overall dataset contains a total of 2179 samples with 1878 different haplotypes. I2a was detected as the major haplogroup in four out of thirteen analysed Balkan populations. The four populations (B&H, Croatia, Montenegro and Serbia) which had I2a as the most prevalent haplogroup were all from the former Yugoslavian republic. The remaining two major populations from former Yugoslavia, Macedonia and Slovenia, had E1b1b and R1a haplogroups as the most prevalent, respectively. The populations with E1b1b haplogroup as the most prevalent one are Macedonian, Romanian, as well as Albanian populations from Kosovo and Albania. The I2a haplogroup cluster is more compact when compared to E1b1b and R1b haplogroup clusters, indicating a larger degree of homogeneity within the haplotypes that belong to the I2a haplogroup. Our study demonstrates that a combination of haplogroup prediction and network analysis represents an effective approach to utilize publicly available Y-STR datasets for population genetics.

Prehistoric migrations through the Mediterranean basin shaped Corsican Y-chromosome diversity

The rarity of human remains makes it difficult to apprehend the first settlements in Corsica. It is admitted that initial colonization could have occurred during the Mesolithic period when glaciations would have shortened the open water travel distance from the continent. Mesolithic sites in Corsica show relatively short and irregular occupation, and suggest discontinuous settling of very mobile groups probably traveling by boat. Previous genetic studies on Corsican populations showed internal differentiation and a relatively poor genetic relationship with continental populations, despite intense historical contacts, however local Mesolithic-based genetic inheritance has never been properly estimated. The aim of this study was to explore the Corsican genetic profile of Y-chromosomes in order to trace the genetic signatures back to the first migrations to Corsica. This study included 321 samples from men throughout Corsica; samples from Provence and Tuscany were added to the cohort. All samples were typed for 92 Y-SNPs, and Y-STRs were also analyzed. Results revealed highly differentiated haplogroup patterns among Corsican populations. Haplogroup G had the highest frequency in Corsica, mostly displaying a unique Y-STR profile. When compared with Provence and Tuscany, Corsican populations displayed limited genetic proximity. Corsican populations present a remarkable Y-chromosome genetic mixture. Although the Corsican Y-chromosome profile shows similarities with both Provence and to a lesser extent Tuscany, it mainly displays its own specificity. This study confirms the high level of genetic diversity in Corsican populations and backs genetic contributions from prehistoric migrations associated with the Mesolithic, Neolithic and Metal Age eras, rather than from historical movements to Corsica, respectively attested by frequencies and TMRCA of haplogroups G2a-L91 and G2a-P15, J2a-M241 and J2-DYS445 = 6, R1b-U152 and R1b-U106. These results suggest that marine routes to reach the Corsican coast in many different points may have led to such a genetic heterogeneity.

Bosnian study of APOE distribution (BOSAD): a comparison with other European populations

BACKGROUND

The ε2, ε3 and ε4 alleles of APOE gene have been associated with several diseases in different populations. Data on the frequency of alleles are used in both a clinical and evolutionary context. Although the data on frequency of these alleles are numerous, there are no reports for the population of Bosnia and Herzegovina.

AIM

To estimate the frequency of APOE alleles in a healthy Bosnian population and compare it to data for other European populations.

SUBJECTS AND METHODS

Overall, 170 unrelated Bosnian subjects (108 female and 62 male), aged 53.0 (±5.0) years were included in this study. Genotypes were determined by real-time PCR.

RESULTS

In our group the prevalence of heterozygotes E2/E3, E2/E4 and E3/E4 was 20.6%, 3.5% and 12.9%, respectively, while the prevalence of homozygotes E2/E2, E3/E3, E4/E4 was 0.6%, 61.2% and 1.2%, respectively, with a mean frequency of ε2, ε3 and ε4 alleles of 12.6%, 78.0% and 9.4%, respectively.

CONCLUSIONS

In studied European populations we observed a linear, gradually increasing trend in the frequency of ε4 allele from South to North (Pearson's test 0,7656, p value <0.00001), and the Bosnian population fits into this pattern perfectly.

The mountains of giants: an anthropometric survey of male youths in Bosnia and Herzegovina

The aim of this anthropometric survey, conducted between 2015 and 2016 in Bosnia and Herzegovina (BiH), was to map local geographical differences in male stature and some other anthropometric characteristics (sitting height, arm span). In addition, to investigate the main environmental factors influencing physical growth, the documented values of height would be compared with available nutritional and socioeconomic statistics. Anthropometric data were collected in 3192 boys aged approximately 18.3 years (17-20 years), from 97 schools in 37 towns. When corrected for population size in the examined regions, the average height of young males in BiH is 181.2 cm (181.4 cm in the Bosniak-Croat Federation, 180.9 cm in Republika Srpska). The regional variation is considerable-from 179.7 cm in the region of Doboj to 184.5 cm in the region of Trebinje. These results fill a long-term gap in the anthropological research of the Western Balkans and confirm older reports that the population of the Dinaric Alps is distinguished by extraordinary physical stature. Together with the Dutch, Montenegrins and Dalmatians, men from Herzegovina (183.4 cm) can be regarded as the tallest in the world. Because both nutritional standards and socioeconomic conditions are still deeply suboptimal, the most likely explanation of this exceptional height lies in specific genetic factors associated with the spread of Y haplogroup I-M170. The genetic potential for height in this region could then be the greatest in the world. Future studies should further elucidate the roots of this intriguing phenomenon, which touches an important aspect of human biodiversity.

Genetic heritage of Croatians in the Southeastern European gene pool-Y chromosome analysis of the Croatian continental and Island population

OBJECTIVES

The research objective of this study is to enlarge and deepen the Y chromosome research on the Croatian population and enable additional insights into the population diversity and historic events that shaped the current genetic landscape of Croatia and Southeastern Europe (SEE).

MATERIALS AND METHODS

A high-resolution phylogenetic and phylogeographic analysis of 66 biallelic (SNPs) and 17 microsatellite (STRs) markers of the Y chromosome was performed using 720 Croatian samples. The obtained results were placed in a wider European context by comparison with ∼4450 samples from a number of other European populations.

RESULTS

A high diversity of haplogroups was observed in the overall Croatian sample, and all typical European Y chromosome haplogroups with corresponding clinal patterns were observed. Three distinct genetic signals were identifiable in the Croatian paternal gene pool - I2a1b-M423, R1a1a1b1a*-M558, and E1b1b1a1b1a-V13 haplogroups.

DISCUSSION

The analyses of the dominant and autochthonous I2a1b-M423 lineage (>30%) suggest that SEE had a significant role in the Upper Paleolithic, the R1a1a1b1a*-M558 lineage (19%) represents a signal from present day Slavic populations of Central Europe in the Croatian population, and the phylogeography of the E1b1b1a1b1a-V13 clade (around 9%) implies cultural diffusion of agriculture into Europe via the Balkan Peninsula. Am. J. Hum. Biol., 2016. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Am. J. Hum. Biol. 28:837-845, 2016. © 2016Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Genetic analysis of haplotype data for 23 Y-chromosome short tandem repeat loci in the Turkish population recently settled in Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina

Aim

To explore the distribution and polymorphisms of 23 short tandem repeat (STR) loci on the Y chromosome in the Turkish population recently settled in Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina and to investigate its genetic relationships with the homeland Turkish population and neighboring populations.

Methods

This study included 100 healthy unrelated male individuals from the Turkish population living in Sarajevo. Buccal swab samples were collected as a DNA source. Genomic DNA was extracted using the salting out method and amplification was performed using PowerPlex Y 23 amplification kit. The studied population was compared to other populations using pairwise genetic distances, which were represented with a multi-dimensional scaling plot.

Results

Haplotype and allele frequencies of the sample population were calculated and the results showed that all 100 samples had unique haplotypes. The most polymorphic locus was DYS458, and the least polymorphic DYS391. The observed haplotype diversity was 1.0000 ± 0.0014, with a discrimination capacity of 1.00 and the match probability of 0.01. R_st values showed that our sample population was closely related in both dimensions to the Lebanese and Iraqi populations, while it was more distant from Bosnian, Croatian, and Macedonian populations.

Conclusion

Turkish population residing in Sarajevo could be observed as a representative Turkish population, since our results were consistent with those previously published for the homeland Turkish population. Also, this study once again proved that geographically close populations were genetically more related to each other.

Standing at the gateway to Europe--the genetic structure of Western balkan populations based on autosomal and haploid markers

Contemporary inhabitants of the Balkan Peninsula belong to several ethnic groups of diverse cultural background. In this study, three ethnic groups from Bosnia and Herzegovina - Bosniacs, Bosnian Croats and Bosnian Serbs - as well as the populations of Serbians, Croatians, Macedonians from the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia, Montenegrins and Kosovars have been characterized for the genetic variation of 660 000 genome-wide autosomal single nucleotide polymorphisms and for haploid markers. New autosomal data of the 70 individuals together with previously published data of 20 individuals from the populations of the Western Balkan region in a context of 695 samples of global range have been analysed. Comparison of the variation data of autosomal and haploid lineages of the studied Western Balkan populations reveals a concordance of the data in both sets and the genetic uniformity of the studied populations, especially of Western South-Slavic speakers. The genetic variation of Western Balkan populations reveals the continuity between the Middle East and Europe via the Balkan region and supports the scenario that one of the major routes of ancient gene flows and admixture went through the Balkan Peninsula.

Craniometric analysis of European Upper Palaeolithic and Mesolithic samples supports discontinuity at the Last Glacial Maximum

The Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) represents the most significant climatic event since the emergence of anatomically modern humans (AMH). In Europe, the LGM may have played a role in changing morphological features as a result of adaptive and stochastic processes. We use craniometric data to examine morphological diversity in pre- and post-LGM specimens. Craniometric variation is assessed across four periods--pre-LGM, late glacial, Early Holocene and Middle Holocene--using a large, well-dated, data set. Our results show significant differences across the four periods, using a MANOVA on size-adjusted cranial measurements. A discriminant function analysis shows separation between pre-LGM and later groups. Analyses repeated on a subsample, controlled for time and location, yield similar results. The results are largely influenced by facial measurements and are most consistent with neutral demographic processes. These findings suggest that the LGM had a major impact on AMH populations in Europe prior to the Neolithic.

Maternal genetic heritage of Southeastern Europe reveals a new Croatian isolate and a novel, local sub-branching in the x2 haplogroup

High mtDNA variation in Southeastern Europe (SEE) is a reflection of the turbulent and complex demographic history of this area, influenced by gene flow from various parts of Eurasia and a long history of intermixing. Our results of 1035 samples (488 from Croatia, 239 from Bosnia and 130 from Herzegovina, reported earlier, and 97 Slovenians and 81 individuals from Žumberak, reported here for the first time) show that the SEE maternal genetic diversity fits within a broader European maternal genetic landscape. The study also shows that the population of Žumberak, located in the continental part of Croatia, developed some unique mtDNA haplotypes and elevated haplogroup frequencies due to distinctive demographic history and can be considered a moderate genetic isolate. We also report seven samples from the Bosnian population and one Herzegovinian sample designated as X2* individuals that could not be assigned to any of its sublineages (X2a'o) according to the existing X2 phylogeny. In an attempt to clarify the phylogeny of our X2 samples, their mitochondrial DNA has been completely sequenced. We suppose that these lineages are signs of local microdifferentiation processes that occurred in the recent demographic past in this area and could possibly be marked as SEE-specific X2 sublineages.

Haplotype data for 23 Y-chromosome markers in a reference sample from Bosnia and Herzegovina

Aim

To detect polymorphisms of 23 Y-chromosomal short tandem repeat (STR) loci, including 6 new loci, in a reference database of male population of Bosnia and Herzegovina, as well as to assess the importance of increasing the number of Y-STR loci utilized in forensic DNA analysis.

Methods

The reference sample consisted of 100 healthy, unrelated men originating from Bosnia and Herzegovina. Sample collection using buccal swabs was performed in all geographical regions of Bosnia and Herzegovina in the period from 2010 to 2011. DNA samples were typed for 23 Y STR loci, including 6 new loci: DYS576, DYS481, DYS549, DYS533, DYS570, and DYS643, which are included in the new PowerPlex^® Y 23 amplification kit.

Results

The absolute frequency of generated haplotypes was calculated and results showed that 98 samples had unique Y 23 haplotypes, and that only two samples shared the same haplotype. The most polymorphic locus was DYS418, with 14 detected alleles and the least polymorphic loci were DYS389I, DYS391, DYS437, and DYS393.

Conclusion

This study showed that by increasing the number of highly polymorphic Y STR markers, to include those tested in our analysis, leads to a reduction of repeating haplotypes, which is very important in the application of forensic DNA analysis.

Mitogenomes from two uncommon haplogroups mark late glacial/postglacial expansions from the near east and neolithic dispersals within Europe

The current human mitochondrial (mtDNA) phylogeny does not equally represent all human populations but is biased in favour of representatives originally from north and central Europe. This especially affects the phylogeny of some uncommon West Eurasian haplogroups, including I and W, whose southern European and Near Eastern components are very poorly represented, suggesting that extensive hidden phylogenetic substructure remains to be uncovered. This study expanded and re-analysed the available datasets of I and W complete mtDNA genomes, reaching a comprehensive 419 mitogenomes, and searched for precise correlations between the ages and geographical distributions of their numerous newly identified subclades with events of human dispersal which contributed to the genetic formation of modern Europeans. Our results showed that haplogroups I (within N1a1b) and W originated in the Near East during the Last Glacial Maximum or pre-warming period (the period of gradual warming between the end of the LGM, ∼19 ky ago, and the beginning of the first main warming phase, ∼15 ky ago) and, like the much more common haplogroups J and T, may have been involved in Late Glacial expansions starting from the Near East. Thus our data contribute to a better definition of the Late and postglacial re-peopling of Europe, providing further evidence for the scenario that major population expansions started after the Last Glacial Maximum but before Neolithic times, but also evidencing traces of diffusion events in several I and W subclades dating to the European Neolithic and restricted to Europe.

The paternal perspective of the Slovenian population and its relationship with other populations

BACKGROUND

The Slovenian territory is geographically positioned between the Alps, the Adriatic Sea, the Pannonian basin and the Dinaric Mountains and, as such, has served as a passageway for different populations over different periods of time. Turbulent historic events and the diverse geography of the region have produced a diverse contemporary population whose genetic analysis could provide insight into past demographic events.

AIM

The aim of this study was to analyse Y-chromosome biallelic and STR markers in a Slovenian population from five different regions.

SUBJECTS AND METHODS

A total of 42 Y-chromosomal biallelic markers and 17 Y-STRs were genotyped in 399 individuals from five different Slovenian regions.

RESULTS

The analysis of Y-chromosome markers revealed 29 different haplogroups in the Slovenian population, with the most common being R1a1a, R1b, I2a1 and I1. Analysis of the genetic affiliations between different populations revealed strong affiliations of the Slovenian gene pool with West Slavic populations.

CONCLUSION

Analysis of Y-chromosomal markers in five Slovenian regions revealed a diverse genetic landscape. Slovenian population display close genetic affiliations with West Slavic populations. The homogenous genetic strata of the West Slavic populations and the Slovenian population suggest the existence of a common ancestral Slavic population in central European region.

Y-chromosome diversity in modern Bulgarians: new clues about their ancestry

To better define the structure and origin of the Bulgarian paternal gene pool, we have examined the Y-chromosome variation in 808 Bulgarian males. The analysis was performed by high-resolution genotyping of biallelic markers and by analyzing the STR variation within the most informative haplogroups. We found that the Y-chromosome gene pool in modern Bulgarians is primarily represented by Western Eurasian haplogroups with ∼ 40% belonging to haplogroups E-V13 and I-M423, and 20% to R-M17. Haplogroups common in the Middle East (J and G) and in South Western Asia (R-L23*) occur at frequencies of 19% and 5%, respectively. Haplogroups C, N and Q, distinctive for Altaic and Central Asian Turkic-speaking populations, occur at the negligible frequency of only 1.5%. Principal Component analyses group Bulgarians with European populations, apart from Central Asian Turkic-speaking groups and South Western Asia populations. Within the country, the genetic variation is structured in Western, Central and Eastern Bulgaria indicating that the Balkan Mountains have been permeable to human movements. The lineage analysis provided the following interesting results: (i) R-L23* is present in Eastern Bulgaria since the post glacial period; (ii) haplogroup E-V13 has a Mesolithic age in Bulgaria from where it expanded after the arrival of farming; (iii) haplogroup J-M241 probably reflects the Neolithic westward expansion of farmers from the earliest sites along the Black Sea. On the whole, in light of the most recent historical studies, which indicate a substantial proto-Bulgarian input to the contemporary Bulgarian people, our data suggest that a common paternal ancestry between the proto-Bulgarians and the Altaic and Central Asian Turkic-speaking populations either did not exist or was negligible.

High levels of Paleolithic Y-chromosome lineages characterize Serbia

Whether present-day European genetic variation and its distribution patterns can be attributed primarily to the initial peopling of Europe by anatomically modern humans during the Paleolithic, or to latter Near Eastern Neolithic input is still the subject of debate. Southeastern Europe has been a crossroads for several cultures since Paleolithic times and the Balkans, specifically, would have been part of the route used by Neolithic farmers to enter Europe. Given its geographic location in the heart of the Balkan Peninsula at the intersection of Central and Southeastern Europe, Serbia represents a key geographical location that may provide insight to elucidate the interactions between indigenous Paleolithic people and agricultural colonists from the Fertile Crescent. In this study, we examine, for the first time, the Y-chromosome constitution of the general Serbian population. A total of 103 individuals were sampled and their DNA analyzed for 104 Y-chromosome bi-allelic markers and 17 associated STR loci. Our results indicate that approximately 58% of Serbian Y-chromosomes (I1-M253, I2a-P37.2 and R1a1a-M198) belong to lineages believed to be pre-Neolithic. On the other hand, the signature of putative Near Eastern Neolithic lineages, including E1b1b1a1-M78, G2a-P15, J1-M267, J2-M172 and R1b1a2-M269 accounts for 39% of the Y-chromosome. Haplogroup frequency distributions in Western and Eastern Europe reveal a spotted landscape of paleolithic Y chromosomes, undermining continental-wide generalizations. Furthermore, an examination of the distribution of Y-chromosome filiations in Europe indicates extreme levels of Paleolithic lineages in a region encompassing Serbia, Bosnia-Herzegovina and Croatia, possibly the result of Neolithic migrations encroaching on Paleolithic populations against the Adriatic Sea.

Croatian national reference Y-STR haplotype database

A reference Y-chromosome short tandem repeat (STR) haplotype database is needed for Y-STR match interpretation as well as for national and regional characterization of populations. The aim of this study was to create a comprehensive Y-STR haplotype database of the Croatian contemporary population and to analyze substructure between the five Croatian regions. We carried out a statistical analysis of the data from previously performed genetic analyses collected during routine forensic work by the Forensic Science Centre "Ivan Vučetić". A total of 1,100 unrelated men from eastern, western, northern, southern and central Croatia were selected for the purpose of this study. Y-STRs were typed using the AmpFISTR Yfiler PCR amplification kit. Analysis of molecular variance calculated with the Y chromosome haplotype reference database online analysis tool included 16 population samples with 20,247 haplotypes. A total of 947 haplotypes were recorded, 848 of which were unique (89.5%). Haplotype diversity was 0.998, with the most frequent haplotype found in 9 of 1,100 men (0.82%). Locus diversity varied from 0.266 for DYS392 to 0.868 for DYS385. Discrimination capacity was 86.1%. Our results suggested high level of similarity among regional subpopulations within Croatia, except for mildly different southern Croatia. Relative resemblance was found with Bosnia and Herzegovina and Serbia. Whit Atheys' Haplogroup Predictor was used to estimate the frequencies of Y-chromosome haplogroups. I2a, R1a, E1b1b and R1b haplogroups were most frequent in all Croatian regions. These results are important in forensics and contribute to the population genetics and genetic background of the contemporary Croatian population.

Croatian genetic heritage: Y-chromosome story

The aim of this article is to offer a concise interpretation of the scientific data about the topic of Croatian genetic heritage that was obtained over the past 10 years. We made a short overview of previously published articles by our and other groups, based mostly on Y-chromosome results. The data demonstrate that Croatian human population, as almost any other European population, represents remarkable genetic mixture. More than 3/4 of the contemporary Croatian men are most probably the offspring of Old Europeans who came here before and after the Last Glacial Maximum. The rest of the population is the offspring of the people who were arriving in this part of Europe through the southeastern route in the last 10,000 years, mostly during the neolithization process. We believe that the latest discoveries made with the techniques for whole-genome typing using the array technology, will help us understand the structure of Croatian population in more detail, as well as the aspects of its demographic history.

Determination of combined sibship indices "gray zone" using 15 STR loci for central Bosnian human population

In our previous population studies of Bosnia and Herzegovina human population, we have used autosomal STR, Y-STR, and X-STR loci, as well as Y-chromosome NRY biallelic markers. All obtained results were included in Bosnian referent database. In order of future development of applied population molecular genetics researches of Bosnia and Herzegovina human population, we have examined the effectiveness of 15 STR loci system in determination of sibship by using 15 STR loci and calculating different cut-off points of combined sibship indices (CSI) and distribution of sharing alleles. From the perspective of its application, it is very difficult and complicated to establish strict CSI cut-off values for determination of the doubtless sibship. High statistically significant difference between the means of CSI values and in distribution of alleles sharing in siblings and non-siblings was noticed (P < 0.0001). After constructing the "gray zone", only one false positive result was found in three CSI cut-off levels with the highest percent of determined sibship/non-sibship at the CSI = 0.067, confirming its practical benefit. Concerning the distribution of sharing alleles, it is recommended as an informative estimator for its usage within Bosnia and Herzegovina human population.

Forensic DNA databases in Western Balkan region: retrospectives, perspectives, and initiatives

The European Network of Forensic Science Institutes (ENFSI) recommended the establishment of forensic DNA databases and specific implementation and management legislations for all EU/ENFSI members. Therefore, forensic institutions from Bosnia and Herzegovina, Serbia, Montenegro, and Macedonia launched a wide set of activities to support these recommendations. To assess the current state, a regional expert team completed detailed screening and investigation of the existing forensic DNA data repositories and associated legislation in these countries. The scope also included relevant concurrent projects and a wide spectrum of different activities in relation to forensics DNA use. The state of forensic DNA analysis was also determined in the neighboring Slovenia and Croatia, which already have functional national DNA databases. There is a need for a ‘regional supplement’ to the current documentation and standards pertaining to forensic application of DNA databases, which should include regional-specific preliminary aims and recommendations.

Mitochondrial DNA and Y-chromosomal stratification in Iran: relationship between Iran and the Arabian Peninsula

Modern day Iran is strategically located in the tri-continental corridor uniting Africa, Europe and Asia. Several ethnic groups belonging to distinct religions, speaking different languages and claiming divergent ancestries inhabit the region, generating a potentially diverse genetic reservoir. In addition, past pre-historical and historical events such as the out-of-Africa migrations, the Neolithic expansion from the Fertile Crescent, the Indo-Aryan treks from the Central Asian steppes, the westward Mongol expansions and the Muslim invasions may have chiseled their genetic fingerprints within the genealogical substrata of the Persians. On the other hand, the Iranian perimeter is bounded by the Zagros and Albrez mountain ranges, and the Dasht-e Kavir and Dash-e Lut deserts, which may have restricted gene flow from neighboring regions. By utilizing high-resolution mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) markers and reanalyzing our previously published Y-chromosomal data, we have found a previously unexplored, genetic connection between Iranian populations and the Arabian Peninsula, likely the result of both ancient and recent gene flow. Furthermore, the regional distribution of mtDNA haplogroups J, I, U2 and U7 also provides evidence of barriers to gene flow posed by the two major Iranian deserts and the Zagros mountain range.

Genetic polymorphisms of 17 short tandem repeat loci on Y chromosome in central Croatian population

In forensic casework, Y-chromosome short tandem repeat (STR) haplotyping is used in human identification, paternity testing and sexual assault cases where Y-STRs provide a male-specific DNA profile. The aim of this study was to describe the genetic structure of Y chromosome in a central Croatian population. We carried out a statistical analysis of the data from previously performed genetic analyses collected during routine forensic work by the Forensic Science Centre "Ivan Vučetić". A total of 220 unrelated healthy men from central Croatia were selected for the purpose of this study. Genomic DNA was extracted using a Chelex procedure from FTA(®) cards. Y-chromosomal STRs were determined using the AmpFISTR Yfiler PCR amplification kit. The haplotype frequencies were determined by direct counting and analyzed using Arlequin 3.1 and analysis of molecular variance calculated with the Y chromosome haplotype reference database online analysis tool. A total of 212 haplotypes were identified, 204 of which were unique. Total haplotype diversity was 0.993. Locus diversity varied from 0.325 for DYS392 to 0.786 for DYS385. Discrimination capacity was 92.7%. Allele frequencies diversity was 0.615. Intermediate alleles 17.2, 18.2 and 19.2 were found at DYS458 locus. A comparison with published data for the European minimal haplotype set showed the closest relationship to the Croatian capital of Zagreb and Bosnia and Herzegovina with significant genetic distance from Slovenia and Austria. The central Croatian population is now well characterized in terms of Y-chromosome STRs, thus providing a solid basis for further forensic and genetic epidemiology studies.

The origin of Eastern European Jews revealed by autosomal, sex chromosomal and mtDNA polymorphisms

Background

This study aims to establish the likely origin of EEJ (Eastern European Jews) by genetic distance analysis of autosomal markers and haplogroups on the X and Y chromosomes and mtDNA.

Results

According to the autosomal polymorphisms the investigated Jewish populations do not share a common origin, and EEJ are closer to Italians in particular and to Europeans in general than to the other Jewish populations. The similarity of EEJ to Italians and Europeans is also supported by the X chromosomal haplogroups. In contrast according to the Y-chromosomal haplogroups EEJ are closest to the non-Jewish populations of the Eastern Mediterranean. MtDNA shows a mixed pattern, but overall EEJ are more distant from most populations and hold a marginal rather than a central position. The autosomal genetic distance matrix has a very high correlation (0.789) with geography, whereas the X-chromosomal, Y-chromosomal and mtDNA matrices have a lower correlation (0.540, 0.395 and 0.641 respectively).

Conclusions

The close genetic resemblance to Italians accords with the historical presumption that Ashkenazi Jews started their migrations across Europe in Italy and with historical evidence that conversion to Judaism was common in ancient Rome. The reasons for the discrepancy between the biparental markers and the uniparental markers are discussed.

Reviewers

This article was reviewed by Damian Labuda (nominated by Jerzy Jurka), Kateryna Makova and Qasim Ayub (nominated by Dan Graur).

Divergent patrilineal signals in three Roma populations

Previous studies have revealed that the European Roma share close genetic, linguistic and cultural similarities with Indian populations despite their disparate geographical locations and divergent demographic histories. In this study, we report for the first time Y-chromosome distributions in three Roma collections residing in Belgrade, Vojvodina and Kosovo. Eighty-eight Y-chromosomes were typed for 14 SNPs and 17 STRs. The data were subsequently utilized for phylogenetic comparisons to pertinent reference collections available from the literature. Our results illustrate that the most notable difference among the three Roma populations is in their opposing distributions of haplogroups H and E. Although the Kosovo and Belgrade samples exhibit elevated levels of the Indian-specific haplogroup H-M69, the Vojvodina collection is characterized almost exclusively by haplogroup E-M35 derivatives, most likely the result of subsequent admixture events with surrounding European populations. Overall, the available data from Romani groups points to different levels of gene flow from local populations.

Population data for 17 short tandem repeat loci on Y chromosome in northern Croatia

Human Y-short tandem repeats (STRs) are tandem repeat arrays of two to seven base pair units on non-recombining region (NRY) of the human Y chromosome. Studies on Y-STR are interesting in both population genetics and forensics. The aim of this study was to investigate the population genetic properties of 17 STR loci on Y chromosome in the northern Croatia region. We carried out a statistical analysis of the data from previously performed genetic analysis collected during routine forensic work by the Forensic Science Centre "Ivan Vučetić". A total of 220 unrelated healthy men from northern Croatia were selected for the purpose of this study. Genomic DNA was extracted using Chelex procedure from FTA(®) cards. Y-chromosomal STRs were determined using the AmpFISTR Yfiler PCR amplification kit. The haplotype frequencies were determined by direct counting and analyzed using Arlequin 3.1 and analysis of molecular variance calculated with the Y chromosome haplotype reference database online analysis tool. A total of 210 haplotypes were identified, 200 of which were unique. Total haplotype diversity was 0.995. Locus diversity varied from 0.331 for DYS392 to 0.783 for DYS385 locus. Allele frequencies diversity was 0.662. Discrimination capacity was 95.7%. The use of European minimal haplotype set indicated the most resemblance of this population to the Croatian capital of Zagreb, with modest resemblance to Bosnia and Herzegovina, Serbia and Hungary. This article provides the first overview of the Y chromosome STR variability in northern Croatia, thus providing the referent point for any future forensic and genetic epidemiology efforts in this region.

Linking Italy and the Balkans. A Y-chromosome perspective from the Arbereshe of Calabria

BACKGROUND

The Arbereshe are an Albanian-speaking ethno-linguistic minority who settled in Calabria (southern Italy) about five centuries ago.

AIM

This study aims to clarify the genetic relationships between Italy and the Balkans through analysis of Y-chromosome variability in a peculiar case study, the Arbereshe.

SUBJECT AND METHODS

Founder surnames were used as a means to identify a sample of individuals that might trace back to the Albanians at the time of their establishment in Italy. These results were compared with data of more than 1000 individuals from Italy and the Balkans.

RESULTS

The distributions of haplogroups (defined using 31 UEPs) and haplotypes (12 STRs) show that the Italian and Balkan populations are clearly divergent from each other. Within this genetic landscape, the Arbereshe are characterized by two peculiarities: (a) they are a clear outlier in the Italian genetic background, showing a strong genetic affinity with southern Balkans populations; and (b) they retain a high degree of genetic diversity.

CONCLUSION

These results support the hypothesis that the surname-chosen Arbereshe are representative of the Y-chromosome genetic variability of the Albanian founder population. Accordingly, the Arbereshe genetic structure can contribute to the interpretation of the recent biological history of the southern Balkans. Intra-haplogroup analyses suggest that this area may have experienced important changes in the last five centuries, resulting in a marked increase in the frequency of haplogroups I2a and J2.

Population genetic analysis of haplotypes based on 17 short tandem repeat loci on Y chromosome in population sample from eastern Croatia

AIM

To investigate the population genetics of 17 short tandem repeat (STR) loci on the Y chromosome in the population of eastern Croatia.

METHODS

We carried out a statistical analysis of the data from previously performed genetic analysis collected during routine forensic work by the Forensic Science Centre "Ivan Vucetić". A total of 220 unrelated healthy men from eastern Croatia were selected for the purpose of this study. Genomic DNA was extracted by Chelex from FTA cards. Y-chromosomal STRs were determined using the AmpFISTR Yfiler PCR amplification kit. The haplotype frequencies were determined by direct counting and analyzed using Arlequin 3.1 and analysis of molecular variance calculated with the Y-chromosome haplotype reference database online analysis tool.

RESULTS

A total of 207 haplotypes were recorded, 197 of which were unique (90%). Haplotype diversity was 0.9993, with the most frequent haplotype found in 4 of 220 men (1.8%). Average locus diversity was 0.600, and it ranged from 0.256 for DYS392 to 0.780 for DYS458. Our results were compared with the pattern of Y-chromosome variability in publicly available population samples based on a minimal European haplotype set of 9 STRs and the greatest resemblance was found with samples from the Croatian capital of Zagreb, from Bosnia and Herzegovina, and from Serbia.

CONCLUSION

This is the first description of Y chromosome haplotyping of the population of eastern Croatia, which may serve as a basis for genetic epidemiology and forensic studies. Further studies are needed for characterization of the genetic structure of the Y-chromosome in the modern Croatian population.

The archaeogenetics of Europe

A new timescale has recently been established for human mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) lineages, making mtDNA at present the most informative genetic marker system for studying European prehistory. Here, we review the new chronology and compare mtDNA with Y-chromosome patterns, in order to summarize what we have learnt from archaeogenetics concerning five episodes over the past 50,000 years which significantly contributed to the settlement history of Europe: the pioneer colonisation of the Upper Palaeolithic, the Late Glacial re-colonisation of the continent from southern refugia after the Last Glacial Maximum, the postglacial re-colonization of deserted areas after the Younger Dryas cold snap, the arrival of Near Easterners with an incipient Neolithic package, and the small-scale migrations along continent-wide economic exchange networks beginning with the Copper Age. The available data from uniparental genetic systems have already transformed our view of the prehistory of Europe, but our knowledge of these processes remains limited. Nevertheless, their legacy remains as sedimentary layers in the gene pool of modern Europeans, and our understanding of them will improve substantially when more mtDNAs are completely sequenced, the Y chromosome more thoroughly analysed, and haplotype blocks of the autosomal genome become amenable to phylogeographic studies.

A predominantly neolithic origin for European paternal lineages

The relative contributions to modern European populations of Paleolithic hunter-gatherers and Neolithic farmers from the Near East have been intensely debated. Haplogroup R1b1b2 (R-M269) is the commonest European Y-chromosomal lineage, increasing in frequency from east to west, and carried by 110 million European men. Previous studies suggested a Paleolithic origin, but here we show that the geographical distribution of its microsatellite diversity is best explained by spread from a single source in the Near East via Anatolia during the Neolithic. Taken with evidence on the origins of other haplogroups, this indicates that most European Y chromosomes originate in the Neolithic expansion. This reinterpretation makes Europe a prime example of how technological and cultural change is linked with the expansion of a Y-chromosomal lineage, and the contrast of this pattern with that shown by maternally inherited mitochondrial DNA suggests a unique role for males in the transition.

Identification of skeletal remains of Communist Armed Forces victims during and after World War II: combined Y-chromosome (STR) and MiniSTR approach

AIM

To report on the use of STR, Y-STRs, and miniSTRs typing methods in the identification of victims of revolutionary violence and crimes against humanity committed by the Communist Armed Forces during and after World War II in which bodies were exhumed from mass and individual graves in Slovenia.

METHODS

Bone fragments and teeth were removed from human remains found in several small and closely located hidden mass graves in the Skofja Loka area (Lovrenska Grapa and Zolsce) and 2 individual graves in the Ljubljana area (Podlipoglav), Slovenia. DNA was isolated using the Qiagen DNA extraction procedure optimized for bone and teeth. Some DNA extracts required additional purification, such as N-buthanol treatment. The QuantifilerTM Human DNA Quantification Kit was used for DNA quantification. Initially, PowerPlex 16 kit was used to simultaneously analyze 15 short tandem repeat (STR) loci. The PowerPlex S5 miniSTR kit and AmpF/STR MiniFiler PCR Amplification Kit was used for additional analysis if preliminary analysis yielded weak partial or no profiles at all. In 2 cases, when the PowerPlex 16 profiles indicated possible relatedness of the remains with reference samples, but there were insufficient probabilities to call the match to possible male paternal relatives, we resorted to an additional analysis of Y-STR markers. PowerPlex Y System was used to simultaneously amplify 12 Y-STR loci. Fragment analysis was performed on an ABI PRISM 310 genetic analyzer. Matching probabilities were estimated using the DNA-View software.

RESULTS

Following the Y-STR analysis, 1 of the "weak matches" previously obtained based on autosomal loci, was confirmed while the other 1 was not. Combined standard STR and miniSTR approach applied to bone samples from 2 individual graves resulted in positive identifications. Finally, using the same approach on 11 bone samples from hidden mass grave Zolosce, we were able to obtain 6 useful DNA profiles.

CONCLUSION

The results of this study, in combination with previously obtained results, demonstrate that Y-chromosome testing and mini-STR methodology can contribute to the identification of human remains of victims of revolutionary violence from World War II.

Y chromosome variation in Europe: Continental and local processes in the formation of the extant gene pool

The polymorphism of the male-specific portion of the Y chromosome has been increasingly used to describe the composition of the European gene pool and to reconstruct its formation. Here the theoretical grounds and the limitations of this approach are presented, together with the different views on debated issues. The emerging picture for the composition of the male gene pool of the continent is illustrated, but local peculiarities that represent departures from the main trends are also highlighted, in order to illustrate the main unifying feature, i.e. the overlay of recent patterns onto more ancient ones. A synopsis of the main findings and conclusions obtained in regional studies has also been compiled.

Improved resolution haplogroup G phylogeny in the Y chromosome, revealed by a set of newly characterized SNPs

Background

Y-SNP haplogroup G (hgG), defined by Y-SNP marker M201, is relatively uncommon in the United States general population, with only 8 additional sub-markers characterized. Many of the previously described eight sub-markers are either very rare (2–4%) or do not distinguish between major populations within this hg. In fact, prior to the current study, only 2% of our reference Caucasian population belonged to hgG and all of these individuals were in sub-haplogroup G2a, defined by P15. Additional Y-SNPs are needed in order to differentiate between individuals within this haplogroup.

Principal Findings

In this work we have investigated whether we could differentiate between a population of 63 hgG individuals using previously uncharacterized Y-SNPs. We have designed assays to test these individuals using all known hgG SNPs (n = 9) and an additional 16 unreported/undefined Y-SNPS. Using a combination of DNA sequence and genetic genealogy databases, we have uncovered a total of 15 new hgG SNPs that had been previously reported but not phylogenetically characterized. Ten of the new Y-SNPs are phylogenetically equivalent to M201, one is equivalent to P15 and, interestingly, four create new, separate haplogroups. Three of the latter are more common than many of the previously defined Y-SNPs. Y-STR data from these individuals show that DYS385*12 is present in (70%) of G2a3b1-U13 individuals while only 4% of non-G2a3b1-U13 individuals posses the DYS385*12 allele.

Conclusions

This study uncovered several previously undefined Y-SNPs by using data from several database sources. The new Y-SNPs revealed in this paper will be of importance to those with research interests in population biology and human evolution.

Y-chromosomal evidence of the cultural diffusion of agriculture in Southeast Europe

The debate concerning the mechanisms underlying the prehistoric spread of farming to Southeast Europe is framed around the opposing roles of population movement and cultural diffusion. To investigate the possible involvement of local people during the transition of agriculture in the Balkans, we analysed patterns of Y-chromosome diversity in 1206 subjects from 17 population samples, mainly from Southeast Europe. Evidence from three Y-chromosome lineages, I-M423, E-V13 and J-M241, make it possible to distinguish between Holocene Mesolithic forager and subsequent Neolithic range expansions from the eastern Sahara and the Near East, respectively. In particular, whereas the Balkan microsatellite variation associated to J-M241 correlates with the Neolithic period, those related to E-V13 and I-M423 Balkan Y chromosomes are consistent with a late Mesolithic time frame. In addition, the low frequency and variance associated to I-M423 and E-V13 in Anatolia and the Middle East, support an European Mesolithic origin of these two clades. Thus, these Balkan Mesolithic foragers with their own autochthonous genetic signatures, were destined to become the earliest to adopt farming, when it was subsequently introduced by a cadre of migrating farmers from the Near East. These initial local converted farmers became the principal agents spreading this economy using maritime leapfrog colonization strategies in the Adriatic and transmitting the Neolithic cultural package to other adjacent Mesolithic populations. The ensuing range expansions of E-V13 and I-M423 parallel in space and time the diffusion of Neolithic Impressed Ware, thereby supporting a case of cultural diffusion using genetic evidence.

Boundaries and clines in the West Eurasian Y-chromosome landscape: insights from the European part of Russia

Previous studies of Y chromosome variation have revealed that western Europe, the Volga-Ural region, and the Caucasus differ dramatically with respect to Y-SNP haplogroup composition. The European part of Russia is situated in between these three regions; to determine if these differences reflect clines or boundaries in the Y-chromosome landscape, we analyzed 12 Y-SNPs in 545 males from 12 populations from the European part of Russia. The majority of Russian Y chromosomes (from 74% to 94%) belong to three Y chromosomal lineages [I-M170, R1a1-M17, and N3-TAT] that are also frequent in the rest of east Europe, north Europe, and/or in the Volga-Ural region. We find significant but low correlations between haplogroup frequencies and the geographic location of populations, suggesting gradual change in the Y chromosome gene pool across western Eurasia. However, we also find some significant boundaries between populations, suggesting that both isolation and migration have influenced the Y chromosome landscape.

Differential Y-chromosome Anatolian influences on the Greek and Cretan Neolithic

The earliest Neolithic sites of Europe are located in Crete and mainland Greece. A debate persists concerning whether these farmers originated in neighboring Anatolia and the role of maritime colonization. To address these issues 171 samples were collected from areas near three known early Neolithic settlements in Greece together with 193 samples from Crete. An analysis of Y-chromosome haplogroups determined that the samples from the Greek Neolithic sites showed strong affinity to Balkan data, while Crete shows affinity with central/Mediterranean Anatolia. Haplogroup J2b-M12 was frequent in Thessaly and Greek Macedonia while haplogroup J2a-M410 was scarce. Alternatively, Crete, like Anatolia showed a high frequency of J2a-M410 and a low frequency of J2b-M12. This dichotomy parallels archaeobotanical evidence, specifically that while bread wheat (Triticum aestivum) is known from Neolithic Anatolia, Crete and southern Italy; it is absent from earliest Neolithic Greece. The expansion time of YSTR variation for haplogroup E3b1a2-V13, in the Peloponnese was consistent with an indigenous Mesolithic presence. In turn, two distinctive haplogroups, J2a1h-M319 and J2a1b1-M92, have demographic properties consistent with Bronze Age expansions in Crete, arguably from NW/W Anatolia and Syro-Palestine, while a later mainland (Mycenaean) contribution to Crete is indicated by relative frequencies of V13.

Two sources of the Russian patrilineal heritage in their Eurasian context

Progress in the mapping of population genetic substructure provides a core source of data for the reconstruction of the demographic history of our species and for the discovery of common signals relevant to disease research: These two aspects of enquiry overlap in their empirical data content and are especially informative at continental and subcontinental levels. In the present study of the variation of the Y chromosome pool of ethnic Russians, we show that the patrilineages within the pre-Ivan the Terrible historic borders of Russia have two main distinct sources. One of these antedates the linguistic split between West and East Slavonic-speaking people and is common for the two groups; the other is genetically highlighted by the pre-eminence of haplogroup (hg) N3 and is most parsimoniously explained by extensive assimilation of (or language change in) northeastern indigenous Finno-Ugric tribes. Although hg N3 is common for both East European and Siberian Y chromosomes, other typically Siberian or Mongolian hgs (Q and C) have negligible influence within the studied Russian Y chromosome pool. The distribution of all frequent Y chromosome haplogroups (which account for 95% of the Y chromosomal spectrum in Russians) follows a similar north-south clinal pattern among autosomal markers, apparent from synthetic maps. Multidimensional scaling (MDS) plots comparing intra ethnic and interethnic variation of Y chromosome in Europe show that although well detectable, intraethnic variation signals do not cross interethnic borders, except between Poles, Ukrainians, and central-southern Russians, thereby revealing their overwhelmingly shared patrilineal ancestry.

Y-chromosomal variation in the Czech Republic

To analyze the contribution of the Czech population to the Y-chromosome diversity landscape of Europe and to reconstruct past demographic events, we typed 257 males from five locations for 21 UEPs. Moreover, 141 carriers of the three most common haplogroups were typed for 10 microsatellites and coalescent analyses applied. Sixteen Hg's characterized by derived alleles were identified, the most common being R1a-SRY(10831) and P-DYS257*(xR1a). The pool of haplogroups within I-M170 represented the third most common clade. Overall, the degree of population structure was low. The ages for Hg I-M170, P-DYS257*(xR1a), and R1a-SRY(10831) ap peared to be comparable and compatible with their presence during or soon after the LGM. A signal of population growth beginning in the first millennium B.C. was detected. Its similarity among the three most common Hg's indicated that growth was characteristic for a gene pool that already contained all of them. The Czech population appears to be influenced, to a very moderate extent, by genetic inputs from outside Europe in the post-Neolithic and historical times. Population growth postdated the archaeologically documented introduction of Neolithic technology and the estimated central value coincides with a period of repeated changes driven by the development of metal technologies and the associated social and trade organization.

The genetical bandwidth mapping: a spatial and graphical representation of population genetic structure based on the Wombling method

Characterizing the spatial variation of allele frequencies in a population has a wide range of applications in population genetics. This article introduces a new nonparametric method, which provides a two-dimensional representation of a structural parameter called the genetical bandwidth, which describes genetic structure around arbitrary spatial locations in a study area. This parameter corresponds to the shortest distance to areas of significant allele variation, and its computation is based on the Womble's systemic function. A simulation study and application to data sets taken from the literature give evidence that the method is particularly demonstrative when the fine-scale structure is stronger than the large-scale structure, and that it is generally able to locate genetic boundaries or clines precisely.

Paleolithic Y-haplogroup heritage predominates in a Cretan highland plateau

The island of Crete, credited by some historical scholars as a central crucible of western civilization, has been under continuous archeological investigation since the second half of the nineteenth century. In the present work, the geographic stratification of the contemporary Cretan Y-chromosome gene pool was assessed by high-resolution haplotyping to investigate the potential imprints of past colonization episodes and the population substructure. In addition to analyzing the possible geographic origins of Y-chromosome lineages in relatively accessible areas of the island, this study includes samples from the isolated interior of the Lasithi Plateau--a mountain plain located in eastern Crete. The potential significance of the results from the latter region is underscored by the possibility that this region was used as a Minoan refugium. Comparisons of Y-haplogroup frequencies among three Cretan populations as well as with published data from additional Mediterranean locations revealed significant differences in the frequency distributions of Y-chromosome haplogroups within the island. The most outstanding differences were observed in haplogroups J2 and R1, with the predominance of haplogroup R lineages in the Lasithi Plateau and of haplogroup J lineages in the more accessible regions of the island. Y-STR-based analyses demonstrated the close affinity that R1a1 chromosomes from the Lasithi Plateau shared with those from the Balkans, but not with those from lowland eastern Crete. In contrast, Cretan R1b microsatellite-defined haplotypes displayed more resemblance to those from Northeast Italy than to those from Turkey and the Balkans.

Population Data at Two Short Tandem Repeat Loci D2S1338 and D19S433 in the Sample of Multinational Bosnia and Herzegovina Residents

POPULATION

We have analyzed the distribution of allele frequencies at two short tandem repeats loci (D2S1338 and D19S433) in a multinational sample of Bosnia and Herzegovina (B&H) residents. A total of 110 unrelated male and female individuals (Caucasians) from different regions of B&H were sampled for the analysis. We ensured that the sample reflected approximate proportional participation of the three main ethnic groups in the population of B&H (Bosniacs-Muslim [45%], Serbs [34%], Croats [21%]).