1
|
Johne R, Scholz J, Falkenhagen A. Heat stability of foodborne viruses - Findings, methodological challenges and current developments. Int J Food Microbiol 2024; 413:110582. [PMID: 38290272 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2024.110582] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/01/2023] [Revised: 01/12/2024] [Accepted: 01/14/2024] [Indexed: 02/01/2024]
Abstract
Heat treatment of food represents an important measure to prevent pathogen transmission. Thus far, evaluation of heat treatment processes is mainly based on data from bacteria. However, foodborne viruses have gained increasing attention during the last decades. Here, the published literature on heat stability and inactivation of human norovirus (NoV), hepatitis A virus (HAV) and hepatitis E virus (HEV) was reviewed. Data for surrogate viruses were not included. As stability assessment for foodborne viruses is often hampered by missing infectivity assays, an overview of applied methods is also presented. For NoV, molecular capsid integrity assays were mainly applied, but data from initial studies utilizing novel intestinal enteroid or zebrafish larvae assays are available now. However, these methods are still limited in applicability and sensitivity. For HAV, sufficient cell culture-based inactivation data are available, but almost exclusively for one single strain, thus limiting interpretation of the data for the wide range of field strains. For HEV, data are now available from studies using pig inoculation or cell culture. The results of the reviewed studies generally indicate that NoV, HAV and HEV possess a high heat stability. Heating at 70-72 °C for 2 min significantly reduces infectious titers, but often does not result in a >4 log10 decrease. However, heat stability greatly varied dependent on virus strain, matrix and heating regime. In addition, the applied method largely influenced the result, e.g. capsid integrity assays tend to result in higher measured stabilities than cell culture approaches. It can be concluded that the investigated foodborne viruses show a high heat stability, but can be inactivated by application of appropriate heating protocols. For HAV, suggestions for safe time/temperature combinations for specific foods can be derived from the published studies, with the limitation that they are mostly based on one strain only. Although significant improvement of infectivity assays for NoV and HEV have been made during the last years, further method development regarding sensitivity, robustness and broader applicability is important to generate more reliable heat inactivation data for these foodborne viruses in future.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Reimar Johne
- German Federal Institute for Risk Assessment, Max-Dohrn-Str. 8-10, 10589 Berlin, Germany.
| | - Johannes Scholz
- German Federal Institute for Risk Assessment, Max-Dohrn-Str. 8-10, 10589 Berlin, Germany
| | - Alexander Falkenhagen
- German Federal Institute for Risk Assessment, Max-Dohrn-Str. 8-10, 10589 Berlin, Germany
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Raedts J, Kellenbach E. Quantitative Risk Evaluation of Adventitious Agents in Heparin. TH OPEN 2023; 7:e128-e132. [PMID: 37220491 PMCID: PMC10200340 DOI: 10.1055/s-0043-1768946] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/29/2022] [Accepted: 04/17/2023] [Indexed: 05/25/2023] Open
Abstract
Heparin is typically extracted from domestic pigs, which may carry zoonotic adventitious agents. Prion and viral safety cannot be assured by testing the active pharmaceutical ingredient itself; instead for the evaluation of the adventitious agent (i.e., viruses/prions) safety of heparin and heparinoid (e.g., Orgaran or Sulodexide) therapeutics, a risk assessment is required. An approach is presented which provides a quantitative estimation of the worst-case potential residual adventitious agent (i.e., GC/mL or ID 50 ) present in a maximum daily dose of heparin. This estimation is based on the input (determined by prevalence, titer, and amount of starting material to prepare a maximum daily dose) and validated reduction by the manufacturing process, resulting in an estimation of the worst-case potential level of adventitious agent present in a maximum daily dose. The merits of this quantitative, worst-case approach are evaluated. The approach described in this review provides a tool for a quantitative risk evaluation of the viral and prion safety of heparin.
Collapse
|
3
|
Hyperoncotic human albumin solutions for intravenous fluid therapy: Effectiveness of pathogen safety and purification methods, and clinical safety. BIOSAFETY AND HEALTH 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bsheal.2022.12.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
|
4
|
Wu L, Mantas A, Gustafsson S, Manukyan L, Mihranyan A. Aggregate Removal Nanofiltration of Human Serum Albumin Solution Using Nanocellulose-Based Filter Paper. Biomedicines 2020; 8:biomedicines8070209. [PMID: 32668723 PMCID: PMC7400174 DOI: 10.3390/biomedicines8070209] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2020] [Revised: 07/06/2020] [Accepted: 07/10/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
This study is dedicated to the rapid removal of protein aggregates and viruses from plasma-derived human serum albumin (HSA) product to reduce the risk of viral contamination and increase biosafety. A two-step filtration approach was implemented to first remove HSA aggregates and then achieve high model virus clearance using a nanocellulose-based filter paper of different thicknesses, i.e., 11 μm (prefilter) and 22 μm (virus filter) at pH 7.4 and room temperature. The pore size distribution of these filters was characterized by nitrogen gas sorption analysis. Dynamic light scattering (DLS) and size-exclusion high performance liquid chromatography (SE-HPLC) were performed to analyze the presence of HSA aggregates in process intermediates. The virus filter showed high clearance of a small-size model virus, i.e., log10 reduction value (LRV) > 5, when operated at 3 and 5 bar, but a distinct decrease in LRV was detected at 1 bar, i.e., LRV 2.65–3.75. The throughput of HSA was also dependent on applied transmembrane pressure as was seen by Vmax values of 110 ± 2.5 L m−2 and 63.6 ± 5.8 L m−2 at 3 bar and 5 bar, respectively. Protein loss was low, i.e., recovery > 90%. A distribution of pore sizes between 40 nm and 60 nm, which was present in the prefilter and absent in the virus filter, played a crucial part in removing the HSA aggregates and minimizing the risk of virus filter fouling. The presented results enable the application of virus removal nanofiltration of HSA in bioprocessing as an alternative to virus inactivation methods based, e.g., on heat treatment.
Collapse
|
5
|
Pitino MA, O'Connor DL, McGeer AJ, Unger S. The impact of thermal pasteurization on viral load and detectable live viruses in human milk and other matrices: a rapid review. Appl Physiol Nutr Metab 2020; 46:10-26. [PMID: 32650645 DOI: 10.1139/apnm-2020-0388] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Holder pasteurization (62.5 °C, 30 min) of human milk is thought to reduce the risk of transmitting viruses to an infant. Some viruses may be secreted into milk - others may be contaminants. The effect of thermal pasteurization on viruses in human milk has yet to be rigorously reviewed. The objective of this study is to characterize the effect of common pasteurization techniques on viruses in human milk and non-human milk matrices. Databases (MEDLINE, Embase, Web of Science) were searched from inception to April 20th, 2020, for primary research articles assessing the impact of pasteurization on viral load or detection of live virus. Reviews were excluded, as were studies lacking quantitative measurements or those assessing pasteurization as a component of a larger process. Overall, of 65 131 reports identified, 109 studies were included. Pasteurization of human milk at a minimum temperature of 56-60 °C is effective at reducing detectable live virus. In cell culture media or plasma, coronaviruses (e.g., SARS-CoV, SARS-CoV-2, MERS-CoV) are highly susceptible to heating at ≥56 °C. Although pasteurization parameters and matrices reported vary, all viruses studied, except parvoviruses, were susceptible to thermal killing. Future research important for the study of novel viruses should standardize pasteurization protocols and should test inactivation in human milk. Novelty In all matrices, including human milk, pasteurization at 62.5 °C was generally sufficient to reduce surviving viral load by several logs or to below the limit of detection. Holder pasteurization (62.5 °C, 30 min) of human milk should be sufficient to inactivate nonheat resistant viruses, including coronaviruses, if present.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Michael A Pitino
- Department of Nutritional Sciences, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON M5S 1A8, Canada.,Translational Medicine Program, The Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, ON M5G 0A4, Canada
| | - Deborah L O'Connor
- Department of Nutritional Sciences, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON M5S 1A8, Canada.,Translational Medicine Program, The Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, ON M5G 0A4, Canada
| | - Allison J McGeer
- Department of Microbiology, Sinai Health, Toronto, ON M5G 1X5, Canada.,Department of Laboratory Medicine and Pathobiology, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON M5S 1A1, Canada.,Dalla Lana School of Public Health, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON M5T 3M7, Canada
| | - Sharon Unger
- Department of Nutritional Sciences, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON M5S 1A8, Canada.,Division of Neonatology, The Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, ON M5G 1X8, Canada.,Department of Pediatrics, Sinai Health, Toronto, ON M5G 1X5, Canada.,Department of Pediatrics, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON M5G 1X8, Canada
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Gröner A, Broumis C, Fang R, Nowak T, Popp B, Schäfer W, Roth NJ. Effective inactivation of a wide range of viruses by pasteurization. Transfusion 2017; 58:41-51. [PMID: 29148053 PMCID: PMC7169671 DOI: 10.1111/trf.14390] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/10/2017] [Revised: 09/11/2017] [Accepted: 09/17/2017] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Careful selection and testing of plasma reduces the risk of blood‐borne viruses in the starting material for plasma‐derived products. Furthermore, effective measures such as pasteurization at 60°C for 10 hours have been implemented in the manufacturing process of therapeutic plasma proteins such as human albumin, coagulation factors, immunoglobulins, and enzyme inhibitors to inactivate blood‐borne viruses of concern. A comprehensive compilation of the virus reduction capacity of pasteurization is presented including the effect of stabilizers used to protect the therapeutic protein from modifications during heat treatment. STUDY DESIGN AND METHODS The virus inactivation kinetics of pasteurization for a broad range of viruses were evaluated in the relevant intermediates from more than 15 different plasma manufacturing processes. Studies were carried out under the routine manufacturing target variables, such as temperature and product‐specific stabilizer composition. Additional studies were also performed under robustness conditions, that is, outside production specifications. RESULTS The data demonstrate that pasteurization inactivates a wide range of enveloped and nonenveloped viruses of diverse physicochemical characteristics. After a maximum of 6 hours' incubation, no residual infectivity could be detected for the majority of enveloped viruses. Effective inactivation of a range of nonenveloped viruses, with the exception of nonhuman parvoviruses, was documented. CONCLUSION Pasteurization is a very robust and reliable virus inactivation method with a broad effectiveness against known blood‐borne pathogens and emerging or potentially emerging viruses. Pasteurization has proven itself to be a highly effective step, in combination with other complementary safety measures, toward assuring the virus safety of final product.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | - Connie Broumis
- Global Pathogen Safety, CSL Behring (Australia) Pty Ltd, Broadmeadows, Victoria, Australia
| | - Randel Fang
- Global Pathogen Safety, CSL Behring (Australia) Pty Ltd, Broadmeadows, Victoria, Australia
| | - Thomas Nowak
- Global Pathogen Safety, CSL Behring GmbH, Marburg, Germany
| | - Birgit Popp
- Global Pathogen Safety, CSL Behring GmbH, Marburg, Germany
| | | | - Nathan J Roth
- Global Pathogen Safety, CSL Behring AG, Bern, Switzerland
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Kapsch AM, Farcet MR, Antoine G, Kreil TR. A nonenveloped virus with a lipid envelope: hepatitis A virus as used in virus-reduction studies. Transfusion 2017; 57:1433-1439. [DOI: 10.1111/trf.14091] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/25/2016] [Revised: 01/24/2017] [Accepted: 02/01/2017] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
|
8
|
Farcet MR, Kreil TR. Zika virus is not thermostable: very effective virus inactivation during heat treatment (pasteurization) of human serum albumin. Transfusion 2016; 57:797-801. [DOI: 10.1111/trf.13953] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/11/2016] [Revised: 09/05/2016] [Accepted: 10/28/2016] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Maria R. Farcet
- Global Pathogen Safety, Shire (previously Baxalta); Vienna Austria
| | - Thomas R. Kreil
- Global Pathogen Safety, Shire (previously Baxalta); Vienna Austria
| |
Collapse
|
9
|
Farcet MR, Lackner C, Antoine G, Rabel PO, Wieser A, Flicker A, Unger U, Modrof J, Kreil TR. Hepatitis E virus and the safety of plasma products: investigations into the reduction capacity of manufacturing processes. Transfusion 2015; 56:383-91. [PMID: 26399175 DOI: 10.1111/trf.13343] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/13/2015] [Revised: 08/12/2015] [Accepted: 08/16/2015] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Hepatitis E virus (HEV) has been transmitted by transfusion of labile blood products and the occasional detection of HEV RNA in plasma pools indicates that HEV viremic donations might enter the manufacturing process of plasma products. To verify the safety margins of plasma products with respect to HEV, virus reduction steps commonly used in their manufacturing processes were investigated for their effectiveness to reduce HEV. STUDY DESIGN AND METHODS Detection methods for HEV removal (by reverse transcription quantitative polymerase chain reaction) and inactivation (using an infectivity assay) were established. Immunoaffinity chromatography and 20-nm virus filtration for Factor (F)VIII, cold ethanol fractionation, and low-pH treatment for immunoglobulin, heat treatment for human albumin, and 35-nm nanofiltration for FVIII inhibitor-bypassing activity (FEIBA) were investigated for their capacity to reduce HEV or the physicochemically similar viruses feline calicivirus (FCV) and hepatitis A virus (HAV). RESULTS For FVIII, HEV reduction of 3.9 and more than 3.9 log was demonstrated for immunoaffinity chromatography and 20-nm nanofiltration, respectively, and the cold ethanol fractionation for immunoglobulin removed more than 3.5 log of HEV, to below the limit of detection (LOD). Heat treatment of human albumin inactivated more than 3.1 log of HEV to below the LOD and 35-nm nanofiltration removed 4.0 log of HEV from the FEIBA intermediate. The results indicated HAV rather than FCV as the more relevant model virus for HEV. CONCLUSION Substantial HEV reduction during processes commonly used in the manufacturing of plasma products was demonstrated, similar to that previously demonstrated for HAV.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Maria R Farcet
- Global Pathogen Safety, Baxalta (previously Baxter BioScience), Vienna, Austria
| | - Cornelia Lackner
- Global Pathogen Safety, Baxalta (previously Baxter BioScience), Vienna, Austria
| | - Gerhard Antoine
- Global Pathogen Safety, Baxalta (previously Baxter BioScience), Vienna, Austria
| | - Philip O Rabel
- Global Pathogen Safety, Baxalta (previously Baxter BioScience), Vienna, Austria
| | - Andreas Wieser
- Global Pathogen Safety, Baxalta (previously Baxter BioScience), Vienna, Austria
| | - Andreas Flicker
- Global Pathogen Safety, Baxalta (previously Baxter BioScience), Vienna, Austria
| | - Ulrike Unger
- Global Pathogen Safety, Baxalta (previously Baxter BioScience), Vienna, Austria
| | - Jens Modrof
- Global Pathogen Safety, Baxalta (previously Baxter BioScience), Vienna, Austria
| | - Thomas R Kreil
- Global Pathogen Safety, Baxalta (previously Baxter BioScience), Vienna, Austria
| |
Collapse
|
10
|
Sánchez G. Processing Strategies to Inactivate Hepatitis A Virus in Food Products: A Critical Review. Compr Rev Food Sci Food Saf 2015. [DOI: 10.1111/1541-4337.12154] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Gloria Sánchez
- Dept. of Microbiology and Ecology; Univ. of Valencia, Dr. Moliner; 50. Burjassot Valencia Spain
- Inst. of Agrochemistry and Food Technology (IATA); Spanish Council for Scientific Research (CSIC); Agustín Escardino, 7. Paterna Valencia Spain
| |
Collapse
|
11
|
|
12
|
Yunoki M, Sakai K, Totsuka A, Wakisaka A. Hepatitis A virus strain KRM238 resistant at heat inactivation. Transfusion 2013; 53:2103-4. [DOI: 10.1111/trf.12259] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Affiliation(s)
| | - Kaoru Sakai
- Central Research Laboratory; R&D Division; Japan Blood Products Organization; Kobe
| | - Atsuko Totsuka
- Department of Virology II; National Institute of Infectious Diseases; Tokyo
| | - Akemi Wakisaka
- Chitose Plant; Japan Blood Products Organization; Hokkaido; Japan
| |
Collapse
|
13
|
Infusible platelet membrane as a platelet substitute for transfusion: an overview. BLOOD TRANSFUSION = TRASFUSIONE DEL SANGUE 2013; 11:337-42. [PMID: 23736926 DOI: 10.2450/2013.0209-12] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/17/2012] [Accepted: 03/20/2013] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
|
14
|
Blümel J, Rinckel LA, Lee DC, Roth NJ, Baylis SA. Inactivation and neutralization of parvovirus B19 Genotype 3. Transfusion 2012; 52:1490-7. [PMID: 22339291 DOI: 10.1111/j.1537-2995.2012.03573.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Parvovirus B19 (B19V) is a common contaminant of human plasma donations. Three B19V genotypes have been defined based on their DNA sequence. Reliable detection of Genotype 3 DNA has proved problematic because of unexpected sequence variability. B19V Genotype 3 is found primarily in West Africa, but was recently detected in plasma from a North American donor. The safety of plasma-derived medicinal products, with respect to B19V, relies on exclusion of high-titer donations, combined with virus clearance at specific manufacturing steps. Studies on inactivation of B19V are difficult to perform and inactivation of Genotype 3 has not yet been investigated. STUDY DESIGN AND METHODS Inactivation of B19V Genotypes 3 and 1 by pasteurization of human serum albumin and incubation at low pH was studied using a cell culture assay for infectious virus particles. Infected cells were detected by reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction analysis of virus capsid mRNA. Neutralization of B19V Genotype 3 was investigated using human immunoglobulin preparations. RESULTS Genotypes 1 and 3 displayed comparable inactivation kinetics during pasteurization of albumin at 56°C, as well as by incubation at various low-pH conditions (pH 4.2 at 37°C and pH 4.5 at 23°C, respectively) used in immunoglobulin manufacturing. Both Genotypes were readily neutralized by pooled immunoglobulin preparations of North American or European origin. CONCLUSION Pasteurization and low-pH treatment were equally effective in inactivating B19V Genotypes 1 and 3. Neutralization experiments indicated that pooled immunoglobulin of North American or European origin is likely to be equally effective in treatment of disease induced by both genotypes.
Collapse
|