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Valkiūnas G, Iezhova TA. Insights into the Biology of Leucocytozoon Species (Haemosporida, Leucocytozoidae): Why Is There Slow Research Progress on Agents of Leucocytozoonosis? Microorganisms 2023; 11:1251. [PMID: 37317225 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms11051251] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/21/2023] [Revised: 05/04/2023] [Accepted: 05/05/2023] [Indexed: 06/16/2023] Open
Abstract
Blood parasites of the genus Leucocytozoon (Leucocytozoidae) only inhabit birds and represent a readily distinct evolutionary branch of the haemosporidians (Haemosporida, Apicomplexa). Some species cause pathology and even severe leucocytozoonosis in avian hosts, including poultry. The diversity of Leucocytozoon pathogens is remarkable, with over 1400 genetic lineages detected, most of which, however, have not been identified to the species level. At most, approximately 45 morphologically distinct species of Leucocytozoon have been described, but only a few have associated molecular data. This is unfortunate because basic information about named and morphologically recognized Leucocytozoon species is essential for a better understanding of phylogenetically closely related leucocytozoids that are known only by DNA sequence. Despite much research on haemosporidian parasites during the past 30 years, there has not been much progress in taxonomy, vectors, patterns of transmission, pathogenicity, and other aspects of the biology of these cosmopolitan bird pathogens. This study reviewed the available basic information on avian Leucocytozoon species, with particular attention to some obstacles that prevent progress to better understanding the biology of leucocytozoids. Major gaps in current Leucocytozoon species research are discussed, and possible approaches are suggested to resolve some issues that have limited practical parasitological studies of these pathogens.
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Zhao W, Pang Q, Xu R, Liu J, Liu S, Li J, Su XZ. Monitoring the Prevalence of Leucocytozoon sabrazesi in Southern China and Testing Tricyclic Compounds against Gametocytes. PLoS One 2016; 11:e0161869. [PMID: 27571513 PMCID: PMC5003344 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0161869] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/09/2016] [Accepted: 08/13/2016] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Leucocytozoon parasites infect many species of avian hosts, including domestic chicken, and can inflict heavy economic loss on the poultry industry. Two major species of Leucocytozoon parasites have been reported in China, L. sabrazesi and L. caulleryi, although L. sabrazesi appears to be more widespread than L. caulleryi in southern China. The traditional method for detecting Leucocytozoon infection is microscopic examination of blood smears for the presence of mature gametocytes in circulation, which may miss infections with low parasitemia (gametocytemia) or immature gametocytes. Here we developed a PCR-based method to monitor L. sabrazesi infections at seven sites in four provinces of China after testing two PCR primer pairs based on parasite mitochondrial cytochrome b (cytb) and cytochrome c oxidase III (coxIII) genes. We compared the results of PCR detection with those of microscopic observation. As expected, the PCR assays were more sensitive than microscope examination in detecting L. sabrazesi infection and were able to detect parasite DNA after gametocytes disappeared in the blood stream. Using these methods, we investigated monthly dynamics of L. sabrazesi in chickens from a free-range farm in Xiamen, Fujian province of China, over one year. Our results showed that chickens were infected with L. sabrazesi year-round in southern China. Finally, we tested several compounds for potential treatment of Leucocytozoon infections, including primaquine, ketotifen, clomipramine hydrochloride, desipramine hydrochloride, sulfaquinoxaline, and pyrimethamine. Only primaquine had activity against L. sabrazesi gametocytes. Our results provide important information for controlling parasite transmission in southern China and disease management.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wenting Zhao
- State Key Laboratory of Cellular Stress Biology, Innovation Center for Cell Signaling Network, School of Life Sciences, Xiamen University, Xiamen, Fujian 361005, P. R. China
| | - Qin Pang
- State Key Laboratory of Cellular Stress Biology, Innovation Center for Cell Signaling Network, School of Life Sciences, Xiamen University, Xiamen, Fujian 361005, P. R. China
| | - Ruixue Xu
- State Key Laboratory of Cellular Stress Biology, Innovation Center for Cell Signaling Network, School of Life Sciences, Xiamen University, Xiamen, Fujian 361005, P. R. China
| | - Jianwen Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Cellular Stress Biology, Innovation Center for Cell Signaling Network, School of Life Sciences, Xiamen University, Xiamen, Fujian 361005, P. R. China
| | - Shengfa Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Cellular Stress Biology, Innovation Center for Cell Signaling Network, School of Life Sciences, Xiamen University, Xiamen, Fujian 361005, P. R. China
| | - Jian Li
- State Key Laboratory of Cellular Stress Biology, Innovation Center for Cell Signaling Network, School of Life Sciences, Xiamen University, Xiamen, Fujian 361005, P. R. China
- * E-mail: (X-zS); (JL)
| | - Xin-zhuan Su
- State Key Laboratory of Cellular Stress Biology, Innovation Center for Cell Signaling Network, School of Life Sciences, Xiamen University, Xiamen, Fujian 361005, P. R. China
- Laboratory of Malaria and Vector Research, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health (NIH), Bethesda, Maryland 20892, United States of America
- * E-mail: (X-zS); (JL)
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Zhao W, Liu J, Xu R, Zhang C, Pang Q, Chen X, Liu S, Hong L, Yuan J, Li X, Chen Y, Li J, Su XZ. The Gametocytes of Leucocytozoon sabrazesi Infect Chicken Thrombocytes, Not Other Blood Cells. PLoS One 2015. [PMID: 26218846 PMCID: PMC4517878 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0133478] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/31/2023] Open
Abstract
Leucocytozoon parasites infect a large number of avian hosts, including domestic chicken, and cause significant economical loss to the poultry industry. Although the transmission stages of the parasites were observed in avian blood cells more than a century ago, the specific host cell type(s) that the gametocytes infect remain uncertain. Because all the avian blood cells, including red blood cells (RBCs), are nucleated, and the developing parasites dramatically change the morphology of the infected host cells, it has been difficult to identify Leucocytozoon infected host cell(s). Here we use cell-type specific antibodies to investigate the identities of the host cells infected by Leucocytozoon sabrazesi gametocytes. Anti-RBC antibodies stained RBCs membrane strongly, but not the parasite-infected cells, ruling out the possibility of RBCs being the infected host cells. Antibodies recognizing various leukocytes including heterophils, monocytes, lymphocytes, and macrophages did not stain the infected cells either. Antisera raised against a peptide of the parasite cytochrome B (CYTB) stained parasite-infected cells and some leukocytes, particularly cells with a single round nucleus as well as clear/pale cytoplasm suggestive of thrombocytes. Finally, a monoclonal antibody known to specifically bind chicken thrombocytes also stained the infected cells, confirming that L. sabrazesi gametocytes develop within chicken thrombocytes. The identification of L. sabrazesi infected host cell solves a long unresolved puzzle and provides important information for studying parasite invasion of host cells and for developing reagents to interrupt parasite transmission.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wenting Zhao
- State Key Laboratory of Cellular Stress Biology, Innovation Center for Cell Signaling Network, School of Life Sciences, Xiamen University, Xiamen, Fujian, 361005, P. R. China
| | - Jianwen Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Cellular Stress Biology, Innovation Center for Cell Signaling Network, School of Life Sciences, Xiamen University, Xiamen, Fujian, 361005, P. R. China
| | - Ruixue Xu
- State Key Laboratory of Cellular Stress Biology, Innovation Center for Cell Signaling Network, School of Life Sciences, Xiamen University, Xiamen, Fujian, 361005, P. R. China
| | - Cui Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Cellular Stress Biology, Innovation Center for Cell Signaling Network, School of Life Sciences, Xiamen University, Xiamen, Fujian, 361005, P. R. China
| | - Qin Pang
- State Key Laboratory of Cellular Stress Biology, Innovation Center for Cell Signaling Network, School of Life Sciences, Xiamen University, Xiamen, Fujian, 361005, P. R. China
| | - Xin Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Cellular Stress Biology, Innovation Center for Cell Signaling Network, School of Life Sciences, Xiamen University, Xiamen, Fujian, 361005, P. R. China
| | - Shengfa Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Cellular Stress Biology, Innovation Center for Cell Signaling Network, School of Life Sciences, Xiamen University, Xiamen, Fujian, 361005, P. R. China
| | - Lingxian Hong
- State Key Laboratory of Cellular Stress Biology, Innovation Center for Cell Signaling Network, School of Life Sciences, Xiamen University, Xiamen, Fujian, 361005, P. R. China
| | - Jing Yuan
- State Key Laboratory of Cellular Stress Biology, Innovation Center for Cell Signaling Network, School of Life Sciences, Xiamen University, Xiamen, Fujian, 361005, P. R. China
| | - Xiaotong Li
- State Key Laboratory of Cellular Stress Biology, Innovation Center for Cell Signaling Network, School of Life Sciences, Xiamen University, Xiamen, Fujian, 361005, P. R. China
| | - Yixin Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Cellular Stress Biology, Innovation Center for Cell Signaling Network, School of Life Sciences, Xiamen University, Xiamen, Fujian, 361005, P. R. China
- National Institute of Diagnostics and Vaccine Development in Infectious Diseases, School of Public Health, Xiamen University, Xiamen, Fujian, 361005, P. R. China
| | - Jian Li
- State Key Laboratory of Cellular Stress Biology, Innovation Center for Cell Signaling Network, School of Life Sciences, Xiamen University, Xiamen, Fujian, 361005, P. R. China
- * E-mail: (X-zs); (J. Li)
| | - Xin-zhuan Su
- State Key Laboratory of Cellular Stress Biology, Innovation Center for Cell Signaling Network, School of Life Sciences, Xiamen University, Xiamen, Fujian, 361005, P. R. China
- Laboratory of Malaria and Vector Research, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health (NIH), Bethesda, Maryland, 20892, United States of America
- * E-mail: (X-zs); (J. Li)
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Steele EJ, Noblet GP. Gametogenesis, fertilization and ookinete differentiation of Leucocytozoon smithi. J Eukaryot Microbiol 2001; 48:118-25. [PMID: 11249187 DOI: 10.1111/j.1550-7408.2001.tb00423.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Development of Leucocytozoon smithi during gametogenesis, fertilization, and ookinete differentiation was studied by light and electron microscopy. Gametogenesis occurred rapidly, within 1-2 min after gametocytes were ingested by black flies. Usually one axoneme, but not infrequently two, was observed in microgametes. The macrogamete nucleus was characteristically elongated and fragmented, with a convoluted nuclear envelope. Fertilization occurred within five min after ingestion of gametocytes by the vector. The entire axoneme and nucleus of the microgamete entered the cytoplasm of the macrogamete. Zygote differentiation resembled sporozoite formation in that a thickened inner membrane and subpellicular microtubules developed beneath the plasmalemma, followed by cytoplasmic protrusion or evagination to form the anterior end. Extension of the inner thickened membrane continued as the zygote elongated. Development of sausage-shaped ookinetes was completed within 6-8 h after ingestion of a blood meal by a black fly. Mature ookinetes possessed a single nucleus, double-layered pellicle, canopy, apical pore, polar ring complex, subpellicular microtubules, micronemes, crystalloids, abundant mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum, and ribosomes. Comparison of development of L. smithi with species of Plasmodium and Haemoproteus revealed general similarities in both sexual and asexual development within the insect vector. A diagram summarizing life cycle events for L. smithi is included.
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Affiliation(s)
- E J Steele
- Department of Biological Sciences, Clemson University, South Carolina 29634-0326, USA
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