When your face doesn't fit: employment discrimination against people with facial disfigurements

Is the disability wage gap a gendered inequality? Evidence from a 13-year full population study from Norway

Recent research has confirmed the employment disadvantages of disabled people, but disability wage gaps in interaction with gender have not been sufficiently explored. This article asks how the disability wage gap can be accounted for, how the unexplained disability wage gap has evolved over time and how the intersections of disability and gender relate to wage penalties. Norwegian nation-wide annual registry data from the period 2005-2017 (N = 8.5 million) are used to estimate longitudinal pay gaps of disabled men and women in relation to nondisabled workers. The analyses arrive at a persistent residual wage gap for disabled employees. Results confirm that gender is a defining predictor for income, and that disabled women are especially disadvantaged. Implications for intersectional theory are discussed. The current study is a reminder that antidiscrimination legislation and implementation of regulations has not been successful in levelling out injustices experienced by disabled people in the labour market.

Applying XAI to an AI-based system for candidate management to mitigate bias and discrimination in hiring

Assuming that potential biases of Artificial Intelligence (AI)-based systems can be identified and controlled for (e.g., by providing high quality training data), employing such systems to augment human resource (HR)-decision makers in candidate selection provides an opportunity to make selection processes more objective. However, as the final hiring decision is likely to remain with humans, prevalent human biases could still cause discrimination. This work investigates the impact of an AI-based system's candidate recommendations on humans' hiring decisions and how this relation could be moderated by an Explainable AI (XAI) approach. We used a self-developed platform and conducted an online experiment with 194 participants. Our quantitative and qualitative findings suggest that the recommendations of an AI-based system can reduce discrimination against older and female candidates but appear to cause fewer selections of foreign-race candidates. Contrary to our expectations, the same XAI approach moderated these effects differently depending on the context.

SUPPLEMENTARY INFORMATION

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s12525-022-00600-9.

Towards a better understanding of the social stigma of facial difference

Facial difference (FD) is not only an individual experience; it is inherently social, reflecting interactions between social norms and individual attitudes. Often FD is stigmatized. In this paper, we employ a widely used stigma framework, namely the social stigma framework put forth by Pryor and Reeder (2011), to unpack the stigma of FD. This framework posits that there are four forms of stigma: public stigma, self-stigma, stigma by association, and structural stigma. We first discuss the social and psychological literature on FD as it pertains to these various forms of stigma. We then describe coping approaches for FD stigma. Lastly, we delineate evidence-based methods for addressing the various forms of FD stigma, such that future efforts can more effectively tackle the stigma of facial difference.

Pseudo-Contamination and Memory: Is There a Memory Advantage for Objects Touched by "Morphologically Deviant People"?

Memory plays an important role in the behavioral immune system (BIS; Schaller in Psychological Inquiry, 17(2), 96-101, 2016a), a proactive immune system whose ultimate function is to make organisms avoid sources of contamination. Indeed, it has been found that objects presented next to sick people are remembered better than objects shown next to healthy people-representing a contamination effect in memory. In the present studies, we investigated this memory effect in relation to "pseudo-contaminated" sources, that is to say, people exhibiting cues ultimately evoking the threat of contamination but objectively posing no such threat in terms of disease transmission. Common objects were shown next to photographs of people having three kinds of morphological deviations-obesity (study 1), scars and burns (study 2), strange eyes (study 3)-or no morphological deviation. Contrary to our expectations, we found that "pseudo-contaminated objects" were not remembered better than "non-contaminated objects," whereas discomfort ratings of the idea of touching the same objects were clearly higher with morphologically deviant people. Memory mechanisms do not seem to be mobilized by "pseudo-contamination" sources which are not directly related to infection risk.

People with visual impairment in outward-facing work –developing a tool to measure employer attitudes

BACKGROUND: Over the years, persons with disabilities have suffered unjustifiably due to a low employment rate, largely the result of unsupportive and negative attitude from employers. Such attitudes are exacerbated during periods of economic stress, with a case par excellence being the current COVID-19 pandemic. Prior studies have addressed common concerns of employers within the workplace. However, the dimensions of these concerns extend beyond the internal working environment, to the outward-facing work environment, involving interactions with customers and suppliers. These concerns have not, thus far, been properly addressed. OBJECTIVE: To develop the Service from People With Visual Impairment (SPVI) psychometric measure, a 6-item employers’ attitude assessment tool. METHODS: This study is based on 1,036 questionnaires collected using Online Panel Data (OPD), from managers who have hiring authority. We performed Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA) followed by Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) for discriminant and convergent validity. Finally, we present an empirical model comprising a stable single factor and establish predictive validity using Structural Equation Modeling (SEM). RESULTS: CFA showed good fit to the observed data; CMIN/DF = 1.94, p >  0.05, CFI = 1, TLI = 0.99, NFI = 1, RMSEA = 0.03. SEM showed good fit; CMIN/DF = 1.91, CFI = 1, TLI = 0.99, NFI = 0.99, RMSEA = 0.03. CONCLUSION: The results suggest that the instrument could become a pragmatic tool to assess employer attitudes to employ people with visual impairment or blindness due to external work environment concerns. The tool is relevant to a wide range of circumstances, including economic downturns. Practical considerations are discussed.

Is disability more discriminatory in hiring than ethnicity, address or gender? Evidence from a multi-criteria correspondence experiment

In this paper, we conduct a multi-criteria correspondence test to assess the extent of discrimination in access to employment against candidates with a hearing disability and compare it to three other potential grounds for discrimination: ethnicity, place of residence and gender. From October 2019 to February 2020, we sent 2315 applications to 463 job vacancies in the Paris region in France for two occupations, administrative managers and caregiver assistants, in both the private and public sectors. We find that discrimination on the grounds of disability is similar in scope to that found on the grounds of ethnicity in the profession of administrative manager, but discrimination against the disabled candidate is half that experienced by the North African candidate in the profession of caregiver assistant. Moreover, discrimination on the grounds of disability is twice as high in the profession of caregiver assistant, a role which requires more interaction with public, as in the profession of administrative manager. We do not find any evidence of a difference in callback rates based on place of residence or gender. Finally, we cannot conclude that hiring discrimination is systematically lower in the public sector than in the private sector, nor that being eligible for a public subsidy reduces hiring discrimination against the disabled candidate.

The Gatekeepers to Fitness: A Correspondence Study to Examine Disabling Practices Among Fitness Center Personnel

Fitness centers may be an ideal setting for physical activity, yet qualitative findings suggest social-level barriers constrain access for people with disabilities. To further test this, I employed an online message correspondence study to investigate the effect of impairment status on the responsiveness of a national sample of fitness centers to requests for services. Email requests were sent to 800 fitness centers, of which 200 were tailored to each of the four investigative conditions (i.e., control, vision loss, spinal cord injury, or being autistic). The odds of receiving a positive response were 40.5% lower for individuals with vision loss (p = .011) and 33.3% lower for individuals with spinal cord injury (p = .055), as compared with individuals without an impairment. Specifically, the odds of receiving a positive response for personal training were 58.8% lower among individuals with vision loss (p = .003) and 41.1% lower for individuals with spinal cord injury (p = .065).

Korean College Students’ Attitudes toward Disability and Inclusive Education: Latent Profile Analysis

The purpose of this study was to explore the differences in cognitive-behavioral attitudes and emotional connectedness toward people with disabilities (PWDs) and the attitudes toward inclusive education. In total, 309 college students from various universities in South Korea aged from 18 to 29 years (177 male and 130 female) voluntarily participated in this study. The participants were completed a set of questionnaires: Social Distance Toward Disabilities scale, Interaction with Disabled Person Scale, and Teachers’ Attitudes toward Inclusive Education Scale. Latent profile analysis (LPA) was used to model four distinct types: distant (3.56%), lukewarm (73.91%), rationalizing (8.41%), and potential proactive (14.12%). The majority of participants were lukewarm type who had a slightly cognitive-behavioral distance with mediocre empathy toward PWDs, which links to vague stands toward inclusive education. Potential proactive type, the second largest group, showed a positive attitude toward inclusive education with a high level of empathy but still had ambivalent perceptions toward PWDs. The rationalizing and distant groups had one thing in common that they had a relatively low level of empathy toward PWDs, but showed a markedly opposite position in inclusive education. The findings indicate that interventions should be tailored based on the type-specific attitudes and experiences with PWDs in public and educational settings.

Personality, Success, and Beyond: The Layperson's Perception of Patients With Facial Transplantation

BACKGROUND

While the goal of facial vascularized composite allotransplantation (FVCA) is to provide patients with improved physical and social function, no study has evaluated layperson perception of social acceptance and perceived career success of patients with FVCA. The purpose of this study was to determine how FVCA changes social acceptance and perceived career success of patients with facial disfiguration.

METHODS

Eight hundred fifteen laypersons were surveyed through Mechanical Turk to evaluate their perceptions of patients with FVCA. Respondents were shown facial photographs of patients pre-FVCA, post-FVCA, and matched controls and evaluated these photos on 26 items of perceived social acceptance and career success. Responses were analyzed using descriptive statistics and the Wilcoxon signed-rank test.

RESULTS

Both male and female post-FVCA photos were perceived as significantly more socially accepted and professionally successful than their pre-FVCA photos in at least 21 out of 26 items (P < 0.001 for all), but the posttransplant patients scored lower than their control in at least 25 out of 26 items (P < 0.001 for all). Additionally, there were discrepancies in findings based on patient gender.

CONCLUSIONS

This study suggests that while FVCA has a significantly positive impact on social acceptance and perceived professional success, it does not fully reinstate these qualities. Furthermore, varying surgical outcomes and/or cognitive biases (such as gender) may impact perceptions of the individual by the public. Our findings suggest a need to standardize practices to better predict and improve outcomes and encourage surgeons to consider patient factors such as gender when planning these procedures.

Stigma hurts: exploring employer and employee perceptions of tattoos and body piercings in Nigeria

Purpose

This study draws on social stigma and prejudice to examine the perceptions and beliefs of managers and employees regarding visible tattoos and body piercings, as well as the impact they have on potential employment and human resource management in the global South, using Nigeria as the research context.

Design/methodology/approach

The study uses a qualitative research approach, drawing on data from 43 semi-structured interviews with employees and managers in Nigeria.

Findings

Contrary to the popular opinion that tattoos and body piercings are becoming more accepted and mainstream in society, this study finds that some Nigerian employers and employees may stigmatise and discriminate against people with visible tattoos and body piercings. The findings of this study suggest that beliefs about tattoos are predicated on ideologies as well as religious and sociocultural values, which then influence corporate values.

Research limitations/implications

The extent to which the findings of this research can be generalised is constrained by the limited sample and scope of the research.

Practical implications

Religious and sociocultural preconceptions about people with visible tattoos and body piercings have negative implications for the recruitment and employment of such people and could prevent organisations from hiring and keeping talented employees. This implies that talented employees might experience prejudice at job interviews, preventing them from gaining employment. Furthermore, stigmatising and discriminating against people with visible tattoos and body piercings may lead to the termination of employment of talented employees, which could negatively affect organisational productivity and growth.

Originality/value

This study provides an insight into the employment relations regarding tattoos and body piercing in Nigeria. The study highlights the need for mild beliefs and positive perceptions about people with visible tattoos and unconventional body piercings. There should be a general tolerance of the individual preference for body art and physical appearance, and this tolerance should be incorporated in organisational policies, which are enactments of corporate culture.

A Web-Based Self-Help Psychosocial Intervention for Adolescents Distressed by Appearance-Affecting Conditions and Injuries (Young Persons' Face IT): Feasibility Study for a Parallel Randomized Controlled Trial

BACKGROUND

Disfigurement (visible difference) from wide-ranging congenital or acquired conditions, injuries, or treatments can negatively impact adolescents' psychological well-being, education and health behaviours. Alongside medical interventions, appearance-specific cognitive behavioural and social skills training to manage stigma and appearance anxiety may improve psychosocial outcomes. YP Face IT (YPF), is a Web-based seven session self-help program plus booster quiz, utilising cognitive behavioural and social skills training for young people (YP) struggling with a visible difference. Co-designed by adolescents and psychologists, it includes interactive multimedia and automated reminders to complete sessions/homework. Adolescents access YPF via a health professional who determines its suitability and remotely monitors clients' usage.

OBJECTIVE

To establish the feasibility of evaluating YPF for 12-17 year olds self-reporting appearance-related distress and/or bullying associated with a visible difference.

METHODS

Randomized controlled trial with nested qualitative and economic study evaluating YPF compared with usual care (UC). Feasibility outcomes included: viability of recruiting via general practitioner (GP) practices (face to face and via patient databases) and charity advertisements; intervention acceptability and adherence; feasibility of study and data collection methods; and health professionals' ability to monitor users' online data for safeguarding issues. Primary psychosocial self-reported outcomes collected online at baseline, 13, 26, and 52 weeks were as follows: appearance satisfaction (Appearance Subscale from Mendleson et al's (2001) Body Esteem Scale); social anxiety (La Greca's (1999) Social Anxiety Scale for Adolescents). Secondary outcomes were; self-esteem; romantic concerns; perceived stigmatization; social skills and healthcare usage. Participants were randomised using remote Web-based allocation.

RESULTS

Thirteen charities advertised the study yielding 11 recruits, 13 primary care practices sent 687 invitations to patients on their databases with a known visible difference yielding 17 recruits (2.5% response rate), 4 recruits came from GP consultations. Recruitment was challenging, therefore four additional practices mass-mailed 3,306 generic invitations to all 12-17 year old patients yielding a further 15 participants (0.5% response rate). Forty-seven YP with a range of socioeconomic backgrounds and conditions were randomised (26% male, 91% white, mean age 14 years (SD 1.7)); 23 to YPF, 24 to UC). At 52 weeks, 16 (70%) in the intervention and 20 (83%) in UC groups completed assessments. There were no intervention-related adverse events; most found YPF acceptable with three withdrawing because they judged it was for higher-level concerns; 12 (52%) completed seven sessions. The study design was acceptable and feasible, with multiple recruitment strategies. Preliminary findings indicate no changes from baseline in outcome measures among the UC group and positive changes in appearance satisfaction and fear of negative evaluation among the YPF group when factoring in baseline scores and intervention adherence.

CONCLUSIONS

YPF is novel, safe and potentially helpful. Its full psychosocial benefits should be evaluated in a large-scale RCT, which would be feasible with wide-ranging recruitment strategies.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

ISRCTN registry ISRCTN40650639; http://www.isrctn.com/ISRCTN40650639.

People living with facial disfigurement after having had noma disease: A systematic review of the literature

Noma disease often results in impairment, morbidity and severe facial disfigurement. This article reports a systematic review of literatures published between 2006 and 2015 to establish existing knowledge about social stigma associated with facial disfigurements. Five databases were searched and 114 citations were screened, of which only 15 met the relevant criteria. Titles and abstracts of the retrieved articles were independently reviewed. The research was heterogeneous; therefore, overall synthesis using meta-analysis was inappropriate. It can be seen that the review demonstrates that facial disfigurements are far more complex than was previously thought.

Ethnic and gender discrimination in recruitment: Experimental evidence from Finland

We ask (1) how the position of an ethnic (majority or minority) group in the local ethnic hierarchy affects the amount of recruitment discrimination faced by applicants from that group, and (2) whether gender discrimination is dependent on occupational gender stereotypes in the same way among ethnic majority and minority applicants. We use the situation testing method for the first time in Finland: In an experimental study (Study 1), 103 dentistry students made recruitment decisions based on the CVs of three bogus applicants from different ethnic groups (Finnish, Austrian and Polish) and in a field experiment (Study 2), four test applicants (male and female Finns and Russians) with equivalent CVs applied for 1,258 vacant jobs, addressing gender discrimination in relation to occupational gender stereotypes as well as ethnic discrimination. Together these studies cover both skilled (Study 1) and semi-skilled jobs (Study 2) and applicants from ethnic minority groups originating from within as well as outside the EU. Results show that majority group members are more likely to be hired compared to minority members (both Studies) and that minority members from a higher status group are more likely to be hired than those from a lower status group (Study 1). Results also show that male applicants from the majority group were discriminated compared to women in occupations characterised as feminine, while Russian men faced recruitment discrimination compared to Russian women independently of the job’s gender stereotype (Study 2). Implications of recruitment discrimination based on ethnicity and gender are discussed.

A systematic review of self-help for disfigurement: effectiveness, usability, and acceptability

Self-help has been found to be efficacious in treating mood disorders, however, little is known about its use, effectiveness, or user satisfaction, in reducing distress associated with disfigurement. This review describes the content and focus of self-help interventions available in this area. A systematic search and appraisal protocol facilitated identification of studies, extraction of data, and appraisal of quality. Clinical trials were included if the primary method of intervention delivery was via self-help. Other types of study were included if they investigated user perspectives of a self-help intervention. Eleven studies covering a range of populations met the inclusion criteria. There is tentative support for the use of self-help to manage anxiety associated with disfigurement but little is known about the management of other psychosocial difficulties. Further research and intervention development is required to examine the effectiveness, acceptability, and utility of self-help in managing the appearance related distress associated with disfigurement.