The complete mitochondrial genome of the yeastPichia sorbitophila

Recent and Ongoing Horizontal Transfer of Mitochondrial Introns Between Two Fungal Tree Pathogens

Two recently introduced fungal plant pathogens (Ceratocystis lukuohia and Ceratocystis huliohia) are responsible for Rapid ‘ōhi‘a Death (ROD) in Hawai‘i. Despite being sexually incompatible, the two pathogens often co-occur in diseased ‘ōhi‘a sapwood, where genetic interaction is possible. We sequenced and annotated 33 mitochondrial genomes of the two pathogens and related species, and investigated 35 total Ceratocystis mitogenomes. Ten mtDNA regions [one group I intron, seven group II introns, and two autonomous homing endonuclease (HE) genes] were heterogeneously present in C. lukuohia mitogenomes, which were otherwise identical. Molecular surveys with specific primers showed that the 10 regions had uneven geographic distribution amongst populations of C. lukuohia. Conversely, identical orthologs of each region were present in every studied isolate of C. huliohia regardless of geographical origin. Close relatives of C. lukuohia lacked or, rarely, had few and dissimilar orthologs of the 10 regions, whereas most relatives of C. huliohia had identical or nearly identical orthologs. Each region included or worked in tandem with HE genes or reverse transcriptase/maturases that could facilitate interspecific horizontal transfers from intron-minus to intron-plus alleles. These results suggest that the 10 regions originated in C. huliohia and are actively moving to populations of C. lukuohia, perhaps through transient cytoplasmic contact of hyphal tips (anastomosis) in the wound surface of ‘ōhi‘a trees. Such contact would allow for the transfer of mitochondria followed by mitochondrial fusion or cytoplasmic exchange of intron intermediaries, which suggests that further genomic interaction may also exist between the two pathogens.

The transcriptome of Candida albicans mitochondria and the evolution of organellar transcription units in yeasts

Background

Yeasts show remarkable variation in the organization of their mitochondrial genomes, yet there is little experimental data on organellar gene expression outside few model species. Candida albicans is interesting as a human pathogen, and as a representative of a clade that is distant from the model yeasts Saccharomyces cerevisiae and Schizosaccharomyces pombe. Unlike them, it encodes seven Complex I subunits in its mtDNA. No experimental data regarding organellar expression were available prior to this study.

Methods

We used high-throughput RNA sequencing and traditional RNA biology techniques to study the mitochondrial transcriptome of C. albicans strains BWP17 and SN148.

Results

The 14 protein-coding genes, two ribosomal RNA genes, and 24 tRNA genes are expressed as eight primary polycistronic transcription units. We also found transcriptional activity in the noncoding regions, and antisense transcripts that could be a part of a regulatory mechanism. The promoter sequence is a variant of the nonanucleotide identified in other yeast mtDNAs, but some of the active promoters show significant departures from the consensus. The primary transcripts are processed by a tRNA punctuation mechanism into the monocistronic and bicistronic mature RNAs. The steady state levels of various mature transcripts exhibit large differences that are a result of posttranscriptional regulation. Transcriptome analysis allowed to precisely annotate the positions of introns in the RNL (2), COB (2) and COX1 (4) genes, as well as to refine the annotation of tRNAs and rRNAs. Comparative study of the mitochondrial genome organization in various Candida species indicates that they undergo shuffling in blocks usually containing 2–3 genes, and that their arrangement in primary transcripts is not conserved. tRNA genes with their associated promoters, as well as GC-rich sequence elements play an important role in these evolutionary events.

Conclusions

The main evolutionary force shaping the mitochondrial genomes of yeasts is the frequent recombination, constantly breaking apart and joining genes into novel primary transcription units. The mitochondrial transcription units are constantly rearranged in evolution shaping the features of gene expression, such as the presence of secondary promoter sites that are inactive, or act as “booster” promoters, simplified transcriptional regulation and reliance on posttranscriptional mechanisms.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12864-015-2078-z) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Mitochondrial genome evolution in yeasts: an all-encompassing view

Mitochondria are important organelles that harbor their own genomes encoding a key set of proteins that ensure respiration and provide the eukaryotic cell with energy. Recent advances in high-throughput sequencing technologies present a unique opportunity to explore mitochondrial (mt) genome evolution. The Saccharomycotina yeasts have proven to be the leading organisms for mt comparative and population genomics. In fact, the explosion of complete yeast mt genome sequences has allowed for a broader view of the mt diversity across this incredibly diverse subphylum, both within and between closely related species. Here, we summarize the present state of yeast mitogenomics, including the currently available data and what it reveals concerning the diversity of content, organization, structure and evolution of mt genomes.

Population genomic analysis reveals highly conserved mitochondrial genomes in the yeast species Lachancea thermotolerans

The increasing availability of mitochondrial (mt) sequence data from various yeasts provides a tool to study genomic evolution within and between different species. While the genomes from a range of lineages are available, there is a lack of information concerning intraspecific mtDNA diversity. Here, we analyzed the mt genomes of 50 strains from Lachancea thermotolerans, a protoploid yeast species that has been isolated from several locations (Europe, Asia, Australia, South Africa, and North / South America) and ecological sources (fruit, tree exudate, plant material, and grape and agave fermentations). Protein-coding genes from the mtDNA were used to construct a phylogeny, which reflected a similar, yet less resolved topology than the phylogenetic tree of 50 nuclear genes. In comparison to its sister species Lachancea kluyveri, L. thermotolerans has a smaller mt genome. This is due to shorter intergenic regions and fewer introns, of which the latter are only found in COX1. We revealed that L. kluyveri and L. thermotolerans share similar levels of intraspecific divergence concerning the nuclear genomes. However, L. thermotolerans has a more highly conserved mt genome with the coding regions characterized by low rates of nonsynonymous substitution. Thus, in the mt genomes of L. thermotolerans, stronger purifying selection and lower mutation rates potentially shape genome diversity in contract to what was found for L. kluyveri, demonstrating that the factors driving mt genome evolution are different even between closely related species.

A genome-wide map of mitochondrial DNA recombination in yeast

In eukaryotic cells, the production of cellular energy requires close interplay between nuclear and mitochondrial genomes. The mitochondrial genome is essential in that it encodes several genes involved in oxidative phosphorylation. Each cell contains several mitochondrial genome copies and mitochondrial DNA recombination is a widespread process occurring in plants, fungi, protists, and invertebrates. Saccharomyces cerevisiae has proved to be an excellent model to dissect mitochondrial biology. Several studies have focused on DNA recombination in this organelle, yet mostly relied on reporter genes or artificial systems. However, no complete mitochondrial recombination map has been released for any eukaryote so far. In the present work, we sequenced pools of diploids originating from a cross between two different S. cerevisiae strains to detect recombination events. This strategy allowed us to generate the first genome-wide map of recombination for yeast mitochondrial DNA. We demonstrated that recombination events are enriched in specific hotspots preferentially localized in non-protein-coding regions. Additionally, comparison of the recombination profiles of two different crosses showed that the genetic background affects hotspot localization and recombination rates. Finally, to gain insights into the mechanisms involved in mitochondrial recombination, we assessed the impact of individual depletion of four genes previously associated with this process. Deletion of NTG1 and MGT1 did not substantially influence the recombination landscape, alluding to the potential presence of additional regulatory factors. Our findings also revealed the loss of large mitochondrial DNA regions in the absence of MHR1, suggesting a pivotal role for Mhr1 in mitochondrial genome maintenance during mating. This study provides a comprehensive overview of mitochondrial DNA recombination in yeast and thus paves the way for future mechanistic studies of mitochondrial recombination and genome maintenance.

Comparative mitochondrial genomics within and among yeast species of the Lachancea genus

Yeasts are leading model organisms for mitochondrial genome studies. The explosion of complete sequence of yeast mitochondrial (mt) genomes revealed a wide diversity of organization and structure between species. Recently, genome-wide polymorphism survey on the mt genome of isolates of a single species, Lachancea kluyveri, was also performed. To compare the mitochondrial genome evolution at two hierarchical levels: within and among closely related species, we focused on five species of the Lachancea genus, which are close relatives of L. kluyveri. Hence, we sequenced the complete mt genome of L. dasiensis, L. nothofagi, L. mirantina, L. fantastica and L. meyersii. The phylogeny of the Lachancea genus was explored using these data. Analysis of intra- and interspecific variability across the whole Lachancea genus led to the same conclusions regarding the mitochondrial genome evolution. These genomes exhibit a similar architecture and are completely syntenic. Nevertheless, genome sizes vary considerably because of the variations of the intergenic regions and the intron content, contributing to mitochondrial genome plasticity. The high variability of the intergenic regions stands in contrast to the high level of similarity of protein sequences. Quantification of the selective constraints clearly revealed that most of the mitochondrial genes are under purifying selection in the whole genus.

Mitochondrial genome evolution in a single protoploid yeast species

Mitochondria are organelles, which play a key role in some essential functions, including respiration, metabolite biosynthesis, ion homeostasis, and apoptosis. The vast numbers of mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) sequences of various yeast species, which have recently been published, have also helped to elucidate the structural diversity of these genomes. Although a large corpus of data are now available on the diversity of yeast species, little is known so far about the mtDNA diversity in single yeast species. To study the genetic variations occurring in the mtDNA of wild yeast isolates, we performed a genome-wide polymorphism survey on the mtDNA of 18 Lachancea kluyveri (formerly Saccharomyces kluyveri) strains. We determined the complete mt genome sequences of strains isolated from various geographical locations (in North America, Asia, and Europe) and ecological niches (Drosophila, tree exudates, soil). The mt genome of the NCYC 543 reference strain is 51,525 bp long. It contains the same core of genes as Lachancea thermotolerans, the nearest relative to L. kluyveri. To explore the mt genome variations in a single yeast species, we compared the mtDNAs of the 18 isolates. The phylogeny and population structure of L. kluyveri provide clear-cut evidence for the existence of well-defined geographically isolated lineages. Although these genomes are completely syntenic, their size and the intron content were found to vary among the isolates studied. These genomes are highly polymorphic, showing an average diversity of 28.5 SNPs/kb and 6.6 indels/kb. Analysis of the SNP and indel patterns showed the existence of a particularly high overall level of polymorphism in the intergenic regions. The dN/dS ratios obtained are consistent with purifying selection in all these genes, with the noteworthy exception of the VAR1 gene, which gave a very high ratio. These data suggest that the intergenic regions have evolved very fast in yeast mitochondrial genomes.

Insights into the life cycle of yeasts from the CTG clade revealed by the analysis of the Millerozyma (Pichia) farinosa species complex

Among ascomycetous yeasts, the CTG clade is so-called because its constituent species translate CTG as serine instead of leucine. Though the biology of certain pathogenic species such as Candida albicans has been much studied, little is known about the life cycles of non-pathogen species of the CTG clade. Taking advantage of the recently obtained sequence of the biotechnological Millerozyma (Pichiasorbitophila) farinosa strain CBS 7064, we used MLST to better define phylogenic relationships between most of the Millerozyma farinosa strains available in public collections. This led to the constitution of four phylogenetic clades diverging from 8% to 15% at the DNA level and possibly constituting a species complex (M. farinosa) and to the proposal of two new species:Millerozyma miso sp. nov. CBS 2004^T ( = CLIB 1230^T) and Candida pseudofarinosa sp. nov.NCYC 386^T( = CLIB 1231^T).Further analysis showed that M. farinosa isolates exist as haploid and inter-clade hybrids. Despite the sequence divergence between the clades, secondary contacts after reproductive isolation were evidenced, as revealed by both introgression and mitochondria transfer between clades. We also showed that the inter-clade hybrids do sporulate to generate mainly viable vegetative diploid spores that are not the result of meiosis, and very rarely aneuploid spores possibly through the loss of heterozygosity during sporulation. Taken together, these results show that in this part of the CTG clade, non-Mendelian genetic exchanges occur at high rates through hybridization between divergent strainsfrom distinct clades and subsequent massive loss of heterozygosity. This combination of mechanisms could constitute an alternative sexuality leading to an unsuspected biodiversity.

Pichia sorbitophila, an Interspecies Yeast Hybrid, Reveals Early Steps of Genome Resolution After Polyploidization

Polyploidization is an important process in the evolution of eukaryotic genomes, but ensuing molecular mechanisms remain to be clarified. Autopolyploidization or whole-genome duplication events frequently are resolved in resulting lineages by the loss of single genes from most duplicated pairs, causing transient gene dosage imbalance and accelerating speciation through meiotic infertility. Allopolyploidization or formation of interspecies hybrids raises the problem of genetic incompatibility (Bateson-Dobzhansky-Muller effect) and may be resolved by the accumulation of mutational changes in resulting lineages. In this article, we show that an osmotolerant yeast species, Pichia sorbitophila, recently isolated in a concentrated sorbitol solution in industry, illustrates this last situation. Its genome is a mosaic of homologous and homeologous chromosomes, or parts thereof, that corresponds to a recently formed hybrid in the process of evolution. The respective parental contributions to this genome were characterized using existing variations in GC content. The genomic changes that occurred during the short period since hybrid formation were identified (e.g., loss of heterozygosity, unilateral loss of rDNA, reciprocal exchange) and distinguished from those undergone by the two parental genomes after separation from their common ancestor (i.e., NUMT (NUclear sequences of MiTochondrial origin) insertions, gene acquisitions, gene location movements, reciprocal translocation). We found that the physiological characteristics of this new yeast species are determined by specific but unequal contributions of its two parents, one of which could be identified as very closely related to an extant Pichia farinosa strain.

Mitochondrial genomes of yeasts of the Yarrowia clade

Candida alimentaria, Candida deformans, Candida galli, and Candida phangngensis have been recently reported to be the close relatives of Yarrowia lipolytica. To explore this clade of yeasts, we sequenced the mitochondrial genome (mtDNA) of these four species and compared it with the mtDNA of Y. lipolytica. The five mtDNAs exhibit a similar architecture and a high level of similarity of protein coding sequences. Genome sizes are variable, ranging from 28 017 bp in C. phangngensis to 48 508 bp in C. galli, mainly because of the variations in intron size and number. All introns are of group I, except for a group II intron inserted in the cob gene of a single species, C. galli. Putative endonuclease coding sequences were present in most group I introns, but also twice as free-standing ORFs in C. galli. Phylogenetic relationships of the five species were explored using protein alignments. No close relative of the Yarrowia clade could be identified, but protein and rRNA gene orders were partially conserved in the mtDNA of Candida salmanticensis.

Transposable elements in yeasts

With the development of new sequencing technologies in the past decade, yeast genomes have been extensively sequenced and their structures investigated. Transposable elements (TEs) are ubiquitous in eukaryotes and constitute a limited part of yeast genomes. However, due to their ability to move in genomes and generate dispersed repeated sequences, they contribute to modeling yeast genomes and thereby induce plasticity. This review assesses the TE contents of yeast genomes investigated so far. Their diversity and abundance at the inter- and intraspecific levels are presented, and their effects on gene expression and genome stability is considered. Recent results concerning TE-host interactions are also analyzed.

Complete sequence and analysis of the mitochondrial genome of the methylotrophic yeast Hansenula polymorpha DL-1

We determined the complete nucleotide sequence of the 41 719 bp mitochondrial genome of the methylotrophic yeast Hansenula polymorpha strain DL-1. It contains genes for three subunits of cytochrome oxidase (cox1, cox2 and cox3), three subunits of ATP synthase (atp6, atp8 and atp9), seven subunits of NADH dehydrogenase (nad1-6 and nad4L), apocytochrome b (cob), four endonuclease/maturase homologs, a ribosomal protein (rps3), large and small rRNAs and a complete set of tRNAs. The structural genes are organized in two major transcriptional units. Phylogenetic, gene content and gene order analyses revealed the close phylogenetic relationship between H. polymorpha and Brettanomyces custersianus, and support the assignment of strain DL-1 to a separate genus rather than including it in the polyphyletic genus Pichia.

Evolution of linear chromosomes and multipartite genomes in yeast mitochondria

Mitochondrial genome diversity in closely related species provides an excellent platform for investigation of chromosome architecture and its evolution by means of comparative genomics. In this study, we determined the complete mitochondrial DNA sequences of eight Candida species and analyzed their molecular architectures. Our survey revealed a puzzling variability of genome architecture, including circular- and linear-mapping and multipartite linear forms. We propose that the arrangement of large inverted repeats identified in these genomes plays a crucial role in alterations of their molecular architectures. In specific arrangements, the inverted repeats appear to function as resolution elements, allowing genome conversion among different topologies, eventually leading to genome fragmentation into multiple linear DNA molecules. We suggest that molecular transactions generating linear mitochondrial DNA molecules with defined telomeric structures may parallel the evolutionary emergence of linear chromosomes and multipartite genomes in general and may provide clues for the origin of telomeres and pathways implicated in their maintenance.

Mitochondrial genome from the facultative anaerobe and petite-positive yeast Dekkera bruxellensis contains the NADH dehydrogenase subunit genes

The progenitor of the Dekkera/Brettanomyces clade separated from the Saccharomyces/Kluyveromyces clade over 200 million years ago. However, within both clades, several lineages developed similar physiological traits. Both Saccharomyces cerevisiae and Dekkera bruxellensis are facultative anaerobes; in the presence of excess oxygen and sugars, they accumulate ethanol (Crabtree effect) and they both spontaneously generate respiratory-deficient mutants (petites). In order to understand the role of respiratory metabolism, the mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) molecules of two Dekkera/Brettanomyces species were analysed. Dekkera bruxellensis mtDNA shares several properties with S. cerevisiae, such as the large genome size (76 453 bp), and the organization of the intergenic sequences consisting of spacious AT-rich regions containing a number of hairpin GC-rich cluster-like elements. In addition to a basic set of the mitochondrial genes coding for the components of cytochrome oxidase, cytochrome b, subunits of ATPase, two rRNA subunits and 25 tRNAs, D. bruxellensis also carries genes for the NADH dehydrogenase complex. Apparently, in yeast, the loss of this complex is not a precondition to develop a petite-positive, Crabtree-positive and anaerobic nature. On the other hand, mtDNA from a petite-negative Brettanomyces custersianus is much smaller (30 058 bp); it contains a similar gene set and has only short intergenic sequences.