Linking denitrifier community structure and prevalent biogeochemical parameters in the pelagial of the central Baltic Proper (Baltic Sea)

Comparison of PCR Primers for Analyzing Denitrifying Microorganisms in the Hyporheic Zone

In this study, the specific amplifications of six denitrification-associated genes using PCR(Polymerase Chain Reaction) primer sets were compared. Thereafter, the PCR primer sets that were determined to be suitable for each denitrification-associated gene were used to test samples from sixteen aqueous environments (three from groundwater, three from stream water, and ten from hyporheic zone water). The specific amplification was determined using PCR primer sets for denitrification-associated genes and nucleic acids from eleven types of strains. NosZ was the most frequently amplified gene from the nucleic acid of type, with a specific band seen in all eleven strains. The specific band amplification and PCR time of the strains were analyzed to select one PCR primer set for each gene. The selected PCR primer sets were used to analyze sixteen samples from the aqueous environments in which denitrifying microorganisms were expected to be present. Specific bands of narG, nirS, and nosZ were most frequently observed in the hyporheic water samples. The results showed that microorganisms containing nirG (involved in the reduction of nitrate to nitrite), nirS (involved in the reduction of nitrite to nitric oxide), and nosZ (involved in the reduction of nitrous oxide to nitrogen gas) were the most abundant in the hyporheic zone samples used in this study.

Capturing Compositional Variation in Denitrifying Communities: a Multiple-Primer Approach That Includes Epsilonproteobacteria

Denitrifying Epsilonproteobacteria may dominate nitrogen loss processes in marine habitats with intense redox gradients, but assessment of their importance is limited by the currently available primers for nitrite reductase genes. Nine new primers targeting the nirS gene of denitrifying Epsilonproteobacteria were designed and tested for use in sequencing and quantitative PCR on two microbial mat samples (vent 2 and vent 4) from the Calypso hydrothermal vent field, Bay of Plenty, New Zealand. Commonly used nirS and nirK primer sets nirS1F/nirS6R, cd3aF/R3cd, nirK1F/nirK5R, and F1aCu/R3Cu were also tested to determine what may be missed by the common single-primer approach to assessing denitrifier diversity. The relative importance of Epsilonproteobacteria in these samples was evaluated by 16S rRNA gene sequencing. Epsilonproteobacteria represented up to 75.6% of 16S rRNA libraries, but nirS genes from this group were not found with commonly used primers. Pairing of the new primer EPSnirS511F with either EPSnirS1100R or EPSnirS1105R recovered nirS sequences from members of the genera Sulfurimonas, Sulfurovum, and Nitratifractor. The new quantitative PCR primers EPSnirS103F/EPSnirS530R showed dominance of denitrifying Epsilonproteobacteria in vent 4 compared to vent 2, which had greater representation by "standard" denitrifiers measured with the cd3aF/R3cd primers. Limited results from commonly used nirK primers suggest biased amplification between primers. Future application of multiple nirS and nirK primers, including the new epsilonproteobacterial nirS primers, will improve the detection of denitrifier diversity and the capability to identify changes in dominant denitrifying communities.IMPORTANCE Estimating the potential for increasing nitrogen limitation in the changing global ocean is reliant on understanding the microbial community that removes nitrogen through the process of denitrification. This process is favored under oxygen limitation, which is a growing global-ocean phenomenon. Current methods use the nitrite reductase genes nirS and nirK to assess denitrifier diversity and abundance using primers that target only a few known denitrifiers and systematically exclude denitrifying Epsilonproteobacteria, a group known to dominate in reducing environments, such as hydrothermal vents and anoxic basins. As oxygen depletion expands in the oceans, it is important to study denitrifier community dynamics within those areas to predict future global ocean changes. This study explores the design and testing of new primers that target epsilonproteobacterial nirS and reveals the varied success of existing primers, leading to the recommendation of a multiple-primer approach to assessing denitrifier diversity.

nirS-Encoding denitrifier community composition, distribution, and abundance along the coastal wetlands of China

For the past few decades, human activities have intensively increased the reactive nitrogen enrichment in China's coastal wetlands. Although denitrification is a critical pathway of nitrogen removal, the understanding of denitrifier community dynamics driving denitrification remains limited in the coastal wetlands. In this study, the diversity, abundance, and community composition of nirS-encoding denitrifiers were analyzed to reveal their variations in China's coastal wetlands. Diverse nirS sequences were obtained and more than 98 % of them shared considerable phylogenetic similarity with sequences obtained from aquatic systems (marine/estuarine/coastal sediments and hypoxia sea water). Clone library analysis revealed that the distribution and composition of nirS-harboring denitrifiers had a significant latitudinal differentiation, but without a seasonal shift. Canonical correspondence analysis showed that the community structure of nirS-encoding denitrifiers was significantly related to temperature and ammonium concentration. The nirS gene abundance ranged from 4.3 × 10(5) to 3.7 × 10(7) copies g(-1) dry sediment, with a significant spatial heterogeneity. Among all detected environmental factors, temperature was a key factor affecting not only the nirS gene abundance but also the community structure of nirS-type denitrifiers. Overall, this study significantly enhances our understanding of the structure and dynamics of denitrifying communities in the coastal wetlands of China.

FN-Identify: Novel Restriction Enzymes-Based Method for Bacterial Identification in Absence of Genome Sequencing

Sequencing and restriction analysis of genes like 16S rRNA and HSP60 are intensively used for molecular identification in the microbial communities. With aid of the rapid progress in bioinformatics, genome sequencing became the method of choice for bacterial identification. However, the genome sequencing technology is still out of reach in the developing countries. In this paper, we propose FN-Identify, a sequencing-free method for bacterial identification. FN-Identify exploits the gene sequences data available in GenBank and other databases and the two algorithms that we developed, CreateScheme and GeneIdentify, to create a restriction enzyme-based identification scheme. FN-Identify was tested using three different and diverse bacterial populations (members of Lactobacillus, Pseudomonas, and Mycobacterium groups) in an in silico analysis using restriction enzymes and sequences of 16S rRNA gene. The analysis of the restriction maps of the members of three groups using the fragment numbers information only or along with fragments sizes successfully identified all of the members of the three groups using a minimum of four and maximum of eight restriction enzymes. Our results demonstrate the utility and accuracy of FN-Identify method and its two algorithms as an alternative method that uses the standard microbiology laboratories techniques when the genome sequencing is not available.

Vertical Distribution of Functional Potential and Active Microbial Communities in Meromictic Lake Kivu

The microbial community composition in meromictic Lake Kivu, with one of the largest CH4 reservoirs, was studied using 16S rDNA and ribosomal RNA (rRNA) pyrosequencing during the dry and rainy seasons. Highly abundant taxa were shared in a high percentage between bulk (DNA-based) and active (RNA-based) bacterial communities, whereas a high proportion of rare species was detected only in either an active or bulk community, indicating the existence of a potentially active rare biosphere and the possible underestimation of diversity detected when using only one nucleic acid pool. Most taxa identified as generalists were abundant, and those identified as specialists were more likely to be rare in the bulk community. The overall number of environmental parameters that could explain the variation was higher for abundant taxa in comparison to rare taxa. Clustering analysis based on operational taxonomic units (OTUs at 0.03 cutoff) level revealed significant and systematic microbial community composition shifts with depth. In the oxic zone, Actinobacteria were found highly dominant in the bulk community but not in the metabolically active community. In the oxic-anoxic transition zone, highly abundant potentially active Nitrospira and Methylococcales were observed. The co-occurrence of potentially active sulfur-oxidizing and sulfate-reducing bacteria in the anoxic zone may suggest the presence of an active yet cryptic sulfur cycle.

Drivers of the dynamics of diazotrophs and denitrifiers in North Sea bottom waters and sediments

The fixation of dinitrogen (N₂) and denitrification are two opposite processes in the nitrogen cycle. The former transfers atmospheric dinitrogen gas into bound nitrogen in the biosphere, while the latter returns this bound nitrogen back to atmospheric dinitrogen. It is unclear whether or not these processes are intimately connected in any microbial ecosystem or that they are spatially and/or temporally separated. Here, we measured seafloor nitrogen fixation and denitrification as well as pelagic nitrogen fixation by using the stable isotope technique. Alongside, we measured the diversity, abundance, and activity of nitrogen-fixing and denitrifying microorganisms at three stations in the southern North Sea. Nitrogen fixation ranged from undetectable to 2.4 nmol N L⁻¹ d⁻¹ and from undetectable to 8.2 nmol N g⁻¹ d⁻¹ in the water column and seafloor, respectively. The highest rates were measured in August at Doggersbank, both for the water column and for the seafloor. Denitrification ranged from 1.7 to 208.8 μmol m⁻² d⁻¹ and the highest rates were measured in May at the Oyster Grounds. DNA sequence analysis showed sequences of nifH, a structural gene for nitrogenase, related to sequences from anaerobic sulfur/iron reducers and sulfate reducers. Sequences of the structural gene for nitrite reductase, nirS, were related to environmental clones from marine sediments. Quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) data revealed the highest abundance of nifH and nirS genes at the Oyster Grounds. Quantitative reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR) data revealed the highest nifH expression at Doggersbank and the highest nirS expression at the Oyster Grounds. The distribution of the diazotrophic and denitrifying communities seems to be subject to different selecting factors, leading to spatial and temporal separation of nitrogen fixation and denitrification. These selecting factors include temperature, organic matter availability, and oxygen concentration.

A doubling of microphytobenthos biomass coincides with a tenfold increase in denitrifier and total bacterial abundances in intertidal sediments of a temperate estuary

Surface sediments are important systems for the removal of anthropogenically derived inorganic nitrogen in estuaries. They are often characterized by the presence of a microphytobenthos (MPB) biofilm, which can impact bacterial communities in underlying sediments for example by secretion of extracellular polymeric substances (EPS) and competition for nutrients (including nitrogen). Pyrosequencing and qPCR was performed on two intertidal surface sediments of the Westerschelde estuary characterized by a two-fold difference in MPB biomass but no difference in MPB composition. Doubling of MPB biomass was accompanied by a disproportionately (ten-fold) increase in total bacterial abundances while, unexpectedly, no difference in general community structure was observed, despite significantly lower bacterial richness and distinct community membership, mostly for non-abundant taxa. Denitrifier abundances corresponded likewise while community structure, both for nirS and nirK denitrifiers, remained unchanged, suggesting that competition with diatoms for nitrate is negligible at concentrations in the investigated sediments (appr. 1 mg/l NO₃^-). This study indicates that MPB biomass increase has a general, significantly positive effect on total bacterial and denitrifier abundances, with stimulation or inhibition of specific bacterial groups that however do not result in a re-structured community.

Denitrification and the denitrifier community in coastal microbial mats

Denitrification was measured in three structurally different coastal microbial mats by using the stable isotope technique. The composition of the denitrifying community was determined by analyzing the nitrite reductase (nirS and nirK) genes using clone libraries and the GeoChip. The highest potential rate of denitrification (7.0 ± 1.0 mmol N m(-2) d(-1)) was observed during summer at station 1 (supra-littoral). The rates of denitrification were much lower in the stations 2 (marine) and 3 (intermediate) (respectively 0.1 ± 0.05 and 0.7 ± 0.2 mmol N m(-2) d(-1)) and showed less seasonality when compared to station 1. The denitrifying community at station 1 was also more diverse than that at station 2 and 3, which were more similar to each other than either of these stations to station 1. In all three stations, the diversity of both nirS and nirK denitrifiers was higher in summer when compared to winter. The location along the tidal gradient seems to determine the composition, diversity and activity of the denitrifier community, which may be driven by salinity, nitrate/nitrite and organic carbon. Both nirS and nirK denitrifiers are equally present and therefore they are likely to play a role in the denitrification of the microbial mats studied.

Composition and variation of sediment bacterial and nirS-harboring bacterial communities at representative sites of the Bohai Gulf coastal zone, China

With rapid urbanization, anthropogenic activities are increasingly influencing the natural environment of the Bohai Bay. In this study, the composition and variation of bacterial and nirS-harboring bacterial communities in the coastal zone sediments of the Bohai Gulf were analyzed using PCR-based clone libraries. A total of 95 genera were detected in the bacterial communities, with Proteobacteria (72.1 %), Acidobacteria (10.5 %), Firmicutes (1.7 %), Bacteroidetes (1.4 %), Chloroflexi (0.7 %) and Planctomycetes (0.7 %) being the dominated phyla. The NirS sequences were divided into nine Clusters (A-I). Canonical correlation analysis showed that the bacterial or denitrifying communities were correlated with different environmental factors, such as total organic carbon, total nitrogen, ammonium, sulfate, etc. Furthermore, bacterial communities' composition and diversity are influenced by oil exploration, sewage discharge and other anthropogenic activities in the coastal area of the Bohai Sea. Thus, this study provided useful information on further research on regional or global environmental control and restore.

A metagenomics transect into the deepest point of the Baltic Sea reveals clear stratification of microbial functional capacities

The Baltic Sea is characterized by hyposaline surface waters, hypoxic and anoxic deep waters and sediments. These conditions, which in turn lead to a steep oxygen gradient, are particularly evident at Landsort Deep in the Baltic Proper. Given these substantial differences in environmental parameters at Landsort Deep, we performed a metagenomic census spanning surface to sediment to establish whether the microbial communities at this site are as stratified as the physical environment. We report strong stratification across a depth transect for both functional capacity and taxonomic affiliation, with functional capacity corresponding most closely to key environmental parameters of oxygen, salinity and temperature. We report similarities in functional capacity between the hypoxic community and hadal zone communities, underscoring the substantial degree of eutrophication in the Baltic Proper. Reconstruction of the nitrogen cycle at Landsort deep shows potential for syntrophy between archaeal ammonium oxidizers and bacterial denitrification at anoxic depths, while anaerobic ammonium oxidation genes are absent, despite substantial ammonium levels below the chemocline. Our census also reveals enrichment in genetic prerequisites for a copiotrophic lifestyle and resistance mechanisms reflecting adaptation to prevalent eutrophic conditions and the accumulation of environmental pollutants resulting from ongoing anthropogenic pressures in the Baltic Sea.

Transitions in nirS-type denitrifier diversity, community composition, and biogeochemical activity along the Chesapeake Bay estuary

Chesapeake Bay, the largest estuary in North America, can be characterized as having steep and opposing gradients in salinity and dissolved inorganic nitrogen along the main axis of the Bay. In this study, the diversity of nirS gene fragments (encoding cytochrome cd 1-type nitrite reductase), physical/chemical parameters, and benthic N2-fluxes were analyzed in order to determine how denitrifier communities and biogeochemical activity vary along the estuary salinity gradient. The nirS gene fragments were PCR-amplified, cloned, and sequenced from sediment cores collected at five stations. Sequence analysis of 96-123 nirS clones from each station revealed extensive overall diversity in this estuary, as well as distinct spatial structure in the nirS sequence distributions. Both nirS-based richness and community composition varied among stations, with the most dramatic shifts occurring between low-salinity (oligohaline) and moderate-salinity (mesohaline) sites. For four samples collected in April, the nirS-based richness, nitrate concentrations, and N2-fluxes all decreased in parallel along the salinity gradient from the oligohaline northernmost station to the highest salinity (polyhaline) station near the mouth of the Bay. The vast majority of the 550 nirS sequences were distinct from cultivated denitrifiers, although many were closely related to environmental clones from other coastal and estuarine systems. Interestingly, 8 of the 172 OTUs identified accounted for 42% of the total nirS clones, implying the presence of a few dominant and many rare genotypes, which were distributed in a non-random manner along the salinity gradient of Chesapeake Bay. These data, comprising the largest dataset to investigate nirS clone sequence diversity from an estuarine environment, also provided information that was required for the development of nirS microarrays to investigate the interaction of microbial diversity, environmental gradients, and biogeochemical activity.

Diversity, abundance, and distribution of NO-forming nitrite reductase-encoding genes in deep-sea subsurface sediments of the South China Sea

In marine ecosystems, both nitrite-reducing bacteria and anaerobic ammonium-oxidizing (anammox) bacteria, containing different types of NO-forming nitrite reductase-encoding genes, contribute to the nitrogen cycle. The objectives of study were to reveal the diversity, abundance, and distribution of NO-forming nitrite reductase-encoding genes in deep-sea subsurface environments. Results showed that higher diversity and abundance of nirS gene than nirK and Scalindua-nirS genes were evident in the sediments of the South China Sea (SCS), indicating bacteria containing nirS gene dominated the NO-forming nitrite-reducing microbial community in this ecosystem. Similar diversity and abundance distribution patterns of both nirS and Scalindua-nirS genes were detected in this study sites, but different from nirK gene. Further statistical analyses also showed both nirS and Scalindua-nirS genes respond similarly to environmental factors, but differed from nirK gene. These results suggest that bacteria containing nirS and Scalindua-nirS genes share similar niche in deep-sea subsurface sediments of the SCS, but differed from those containing nirK gene, indicating that community structures of nitrite-reducing bacteria are segregated by the functional modules (NirS vs. NirK) rather than the competing processes (anammox vs. classical denitrification).

Concurrent activity of anammox and denitrifying bacteria in the Black Sea

After the discovery of ANaerobic AMMonium OXidation (anammox) in the environment, the role of heterotrophic denitrification as the main marine pathway for fixed N loss has been questioned. A 3 part, 15 month time series investigating nitrite reductase (nirS) mRNA transcripts at a single location in the Black Sea was conducted in order to better understand the activity of anammox and denitrifying bacteria. Here we show that both of these groups were active, as well as being concurrent in the lower suboxic zone over this time span. Their distributions, however, differed in that only expression of denitrification-type nirS was seen in the upper suboxic zone, where geochemistry was variable. Depth profiles covering the suboxic zone showed that the four groups of anammox-type sequences were expressed consistently in the lower suboxic zone, and were consistent with anammox 16 S rDNA gene profiles. By contrast, denitrifier-type nirS sequence groups were mixed; some groups exhibited consistent expression in the lower suboxic zone, while others appeared less consistent. Co-occurrence of both anammox and denitrifier expression was common and ongoing. Both types of transcripts were also found in samples with low concentrations of sulfide (>2 μM). Six major groups of denitrifier-type nirS transcripts were identified, and several groups of denitrifier-type nirS transcripts were closely related to sequences from the Baltic Sea. An increase in denitrifier-type nirS transcript diversity and depth range in October 2007 corresponded to a small increase in mixed layer net community productivity (NCP) as measured by O(2)/Ar gas ratios, as well as to an increase in N(2) concentrations in the suboxic zone. Taken together, the variations in expression patterns between anammox and denitrification provide one possible explanation as to how near instantaneous rate measurements, such as isotope spike experiments, may regularly detect anammox activity but underreport denitrification.

Denitrifier abundance and activity across the San Francisco Bay estuary

Over 50% of external dissolved inorganic nitrogen inputs to estuaries are removed by denitrification - the microbial conversion of nitrate to nitrogen gas under anaerobic conditions. In this study, denitrifier abundance, potential rates and community structure were examined in sediments from the San Francisco Bay estuary. Abundance of nirK genes (encoding Cu-containing nitrite reductase) ranged from 9.7 × 10(3) to 4.4 × 10(6) copies per gram of sediment, while the abundance of nirS genes (encoding cytochrome cd1 nitrite reductase) ranged from 5.4 × 10(5) to 5.4 × 10(7) copies per gram of sediment. nirK gene abundance was highest in the riverine North Bay, whereas nirS gene abundance was highest in the more marine Central and South Bays. Denitrification potential (DNP) rate measurements were highest in the San Pablo and Central Bays and lowest in the North Bay. nirS-type denitrifiers may be more biogeochemically important than nirK-type denitrifiers in this estuary, because DNP rates were positively correlated with nirS abundance, nirS abundance was higher than nirK abundance at every site and time point, and nirS richness was higher than nirK richness at every site. Statistical analyses demonstrated that salinity, organic carbon, nitrogen and several metals were key factors influencing denitrification rates, nir abundance and community structure. Overall, this study provides valuable new insights into the abundance, diversity and biogeochemical activity of estuarine denitrifying communities and suggests that nirS-type denitrifiers likely play an important role in nitrogen removal in San Francisco Bay, particularly at high-salinity sites.

The impact of using mature compost on nitrous oxide emission and the denitrifier community in the cattle manure composting process

The diversity and dynamics of the denitrifying genes (nirS, nirK, and nosZ) encoding nitrite reductase and nitrous oxide (N(2)O) reductase in the dairy cattle manure composting process were investigated. A mixture of dried grass with a cattle manure compost pile and a mature compost-added pile were used, and denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis was used for denitrifier community analysis. The diversity of nirK and nosZ genes significantly changed in the initial stage of composting. These variations might have been induced by the high temperature. The diversity of nirK was constant after the initial variation. On the other hand, the diversity of nosZ changed in the latter half of the process, a change which might have been induced by the accumulation of nitrate and nitrite. The nirS gene fragments could not be detected. The use of mature compost that contains nitrate and nitrite promoted the N(2)O emission and significantly affected the variation of nosZ diversity in the initial stage of composting, but did not affect the variation of nirK diversity. Many Pseudomonas-like nirK and nosZ gene fragments were detected in the stage in which N(2)O was actively emitted.

Diversity and distribution of sediment nirS-encoding bacterial assemblages in response to environmental gradients in the eutrophied Jiaozhou Bay, China

A gene-clone-library-based molecular approach was used to study the nirS-encoding bacteria-environment relationship in the sediments of the eutrophic Jiaozhou Bay. Diverse nirS sequences were recovered and most of them were related to the marine cluster I group, ubiquitous in estuarine, coastal, and marine environments. Some NirS sequences were unique to the Jiaozhou Bay, such as the marine subcluster VIIg sequences. Most of the Jiaozhou Bay NirS sequences had their closest matches originally detected in estuarine and marine sediments, especially from the Chesapeake Bay, indicating similarity of the denitrifying bacterial communities in similar coastal environments in spite of geographical distance. Multivariate statistical analyses indicated that the spatial distribution of the nirS-encoding bacterial assemblages is highly correlated with environmental factors, such as sediment silt content, NH4+ concentration, and OrgC/OrgN. The nirS-encoding bacterial assemblages in the most hypernutrified stations could be easily distinguished from that of the least eutrophic station. For the first time, the sedimentological condition was found to influence the structure and distribution of the sediment denitrifying bacterial community.

Biodiversity of benthic microbial communities in bioturbated coastal sediments is controlled by geochemical microniches

We used a combination of field and laboratory approaches to address how the bioturbation activity of two crustaceans, the ghost shrimp Neotrypaea californiensis and the fiddler crab Uca crenulata, affects the microbial diversity in the seabed of a coastal lagoon (Catalina Harbor, Santa Catalina Island, CA, USA). Detailed geochemical analyses, including oxygen microsensor measurements, were performed to characterize environmental parameters. We used a whole-assemblage fingerprinting approach (ARISA: amplified ribosomal intergenic spacer analysis) to compare bacterial diversity along geochemical gradients and in relation to subsurface microniches. The two crustaceans have different burrowing behaviors. The ghost shrimp maintains complex, deep-reaching burrows and permanently lives subterranean, supplying its burrow with oxygen-rich water. In contrast, the fiddler crab constructs simpler, J-shaped burrows, which it does not inhabit permanently and does not actively ventilate. Our goal was to address how varying environmental parameters affect benthic microbial communities. An important question in benthic microbial ecology has been whether burrows support similar or unique communities compared with the sediment surface. Our results showed that sediment surface microbial communities are distinct from subsurface assemblages and that different burrow types support diverse bacterial taxa. Statistical comparisons by canonical correspondence analysis indicated that the availability of oxidants (oxygen, nitrate, ferric iron) play a key role in determining the presence and abundance of different taxa. When geochemical parameters were alike, microbial communities associated with burrows showed significant similarity to sediment surface communities. Our study provides implications on the community structure of microbial communities in marine sediments and the factors controlling their distribution.

Analysis of nitrite reductase (nirK and nirS) genes and cultivation reveal depauperate community of denitrifying bacteria in the Black Sea suboxic zone

Chemical profiles of the Black Sea suboxic zone show a distribution of nitrogen species which is traditionally associated with denitrification, i.e. a secondary nitrite maximum associated with nitrate depletion and a N(2) gas peak. To better understand the distribution and diversity of the denitrifier community in the Black Sea suboxic zone, we combined a cultivation approach with cloning and sequencing of PCR-amplified nitrite reductase (nirS and nirK) genes. The Black Sea suboxic zone appears to harbour a homogeneous community of denitrifiers. For nirK, over 94% of the sequences fell into only three distinct phylogenetic clusters, and for nirS, a single closely related sequence type accounted for 91% of the sequences retrieved. Both nirS and nirK genes showed a dramatic shift in community composition at the bottom of the suboxic zone, but overall, nirK-based community composition showed much greater variation across depths compared with the highly uniform distribution of nirS sequences throughout the suboxic zone. The dominant nirK and nirS sequences differed at the amino acid level by at least 17% and 8%, respectively, from their nearest database matches. Denitrifying isolates recovered from the suboxic zone shared 97% 16S rRNA gene sequence similarity with Marinobacter maritimus. Analysis of the recently discovered nirS gene from the anammox bacterium Candidatus'Kuenenia stuttgartiensis' revealed that mismatches with commonly used primers may have prevented the previous detection of this divergent sequence.

Molecular analysis of the nitrogen cycle in deep-sea microorganisms from the Nankai Trough: genes for nitrification and denitrification from deep-sea environmental DNA

Nitrification and denitrification are bacterial functions, which are important for the global nitrogen cycle. Thus, it is important to study the diversity and distribution of bacteria in the environment, which are involved in the nitrogen cycle on the earth. Ammonia monooxygenase encoded by the amoA gene and nitrite reductase encoded by nirK or nirS are essential enzymes for nitrificaton and denitrification, respectively. These genes can be used as markers for the identification of organisms in the nitrogen cycle. In this study, we identified amoA (42 clones) and nirS (98 clones) genes in parallel from samples recovered from the deep-sea of the Nankai Trough. Genes for nirK could not be amplified from these samples. The obtained amoA sequences were not so closely related to those of amoA genes from previously isolated environmental organisms and those of genes from environmental DNAs. On the other hand, the nirS genes sequenced showed some relationship to some extent with the latter genes. However, some of the newly sequenced genes formed clusters, which contained no previously identified genes on a phylogenetic tree. These are likely present in specific denitrifiers from the deep-sea. The results of this study further suggest that nitrifiers and denitrifiers live in the same area of the Nankai Trough and the nitrogen cycle exists even in the deep-sea.