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Rottem S. "Unique choline-containing phosphoglycolipids in Mycoplasma fermentans". Chem Phys Lipids 2015; 194:94-100. [PMID: 26496149 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemphyslip.2015.10.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/05/2015] [Revised: 07/08/2015] [Accepted: 07/26/2015] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Shlomo Rottem
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Genetics, The Hebrew University-Hadassah Medical School, Jerusalem 91120, Israel.
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2
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Unique choline-containing phosphoglycolipids in Mycoplasma fermentans. Chem Phys Lipids 2015; 191:61-7. [PMID: 26232667 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemphyslip.2015.07.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/05/2015] [Revised: 07/08/2015] [Accepted: 07/26/2015] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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3
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Abstract
The de novo synthesized polar lipids of Mycoplasma species are rather simple, comprising primarily of the acidic glycerophospholipids PG and CL. In addition, when grown in a medium containing serum, significant amounts of PC and SPM are incorporated into the mycoplasma cell membrane although these lipids are very uncommon in wall-covered bacteria. The exogenous lipids are either incorporated unchanged or the PC incorporated is modified by a deacylation-acylation enzymatic cycle to form disaturated PC. Although their small genome, in some Mycoplasma species, other genes involved in lipid biosynthesis were detected, resulting in the synthesis of a variety of glycolipis, phosphoglycolipids and ether lipids. We suggest that analyses and comparisons of mycoplasma polar lipids may serve as a novel and useful tool for classification. Nonetheless, to evaluate the importance of polar lipids in mycoplasma, further systematic and extensive studies on more Mycoplasma species are needed. While studies are needed to elucidate the role of lipids in the mechanisms governing the interaction of mycoplasmas with host eukaryotic cells, the finding that a terminal phosphocholine containing glycolipids of M. fermentans serves both as a major immune determinants and as a trigger of the inflammatory responses, and the findings that the fusogenicity of M. fermentans with host cells is markedly stimulated by lyso-ether lipids, are important steps toward understanding the molecular mechanisms of M. fermentans pathogenicity.
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Nishida Y, Takamori Y, Matsuda K, Ohrui H, Yamada T, Kobayashi K. Synthesis of Artificial Glycoconjugate Polymers Carrying 6-O-Phosphocholine α-D-Glucopyranoside, Biologically Active Segment of Main Cell Membrane Glycolipids ofMycoplasma Fermentas. J Carbohydr Chem 2008. [DOI: 10.1080/07328309908544048] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Yoshihiro Nishida
- a Department of Molecular Design and Engineering , Graduate School of Engineering, Nagoya University , Furo-cho, Chikusa-ku, Nagoya 464-8603, Japan
- b Virology and Glycobiology Division, National Cancer Research Center Institute , Tsukiji 5-1-1, Chuo-ku, Tokyo 104-0045, Japan
| | - Yusuke Takamori
- a Department of Molecular Design and Engineering , Graduate School of Engineering, Nagoya University , Furo-cho, Chikusa-ku, Nagoya 464-8603, Japan
- b Virology and Glycobiology Division, National Cancer Research Center Institute , Tsukiji 5-1-1, Chuo-ku, Tokyo 104-0045, Japan
| | - Kazuhiro Matsuda
- a Department of Molecular Design and Engineering , Graduate School of Engineering, Nagoya University , Furo-cho, Chikusa-ku, Nagoya 464-8603, Japan
- b Virology and Glycobiology Division, National Cancer Research Center Institute , Tsukiji 5-1-1, Chuo-ku, Tokyo 104-0045, Japan
| | - Hiroshi Ohrui
- a Department of Molecular Design and Engineering , Graduate School of Engineering, Nagoya University , Furo-cho, Chikusa-ku, Nagoya 464-8603, Japan
- b Virology and Glycobiology Division, National Cancer Research Center Institute , Tsukiji 5-1-1, Chuo-ku, Tokyo 104-0045, Japan
| | - Takeshi Yamada
- a Department of Molecular Design and Engineering , Graduate School of Engineering, Nagoya University , Furo-cho, Chikusa-ku, Nagoya 464-8603, Japan
- b Virology and Glycobiology Division, National Cancer Research Center Institute , Tsukiji 5-1-1, Chuo-ku, Tokyo 104-0045, Japan
| | - Kazukiyo Kobayashi
- a Department of Molecular Design and Engineering , Graduate School of Engineering, Nagoya University , Furo-cho, Chikusa-ku, Nagoya 464-8603, Japan
- b Virology and Glycobiology Division, National Cancer Research Center Institute , Tsukiji 5-1-1, Chuo-ku, Tokyo 104-0045, Japan
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Worliczek HL, Kämpfer P, Rosengarten R, Tindall BJ, Busse HJ. Polar lipid and fatty acid profiles – Re-vitalizing old approaches as a modern tool for the classification of mycoplasmas? Syst Appl Microbiol 2007; 30:355-70. [PMID: 17482408 DOI: 10.1016/j.syapm.2007.03.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 64] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
A set of 20 Mollicutes strains representing different lines of descent, including the type species of the genus Mycoplasma, Mycoplasma mycoides, Acholeplasma laidlawii and a strain of Mesoplasma, were subjected to polar lipid and fatty acid analyses in order to evaluate their suitability for classification purposes within members of this group. Complex polar lipid and fatty acid profiles were detected for each examined strain. All strains contained the polar lipids phosphocholine-6'-alpha-glucopyranosyl-(1'-3)-1, 2-diacyl-glycerol (MfGL-I), 1-O-alkyl/alkenyl-2-O-acyl-glycero-3-phosphocholine (MfEL), sphingomyelin (SphM), 1-O-alkyl/alkenyl-glycero-3-phosphocholine (lysoMfEL), the unknown aminophospholipid APL1 and the cholesterol Chol2. A total of 19 strains revealed the presence of phosphatidylethanolamine (PE) and/or phosphatidylglycerol (PG), and the presence of diphosphatidylglycerol (DPG) was detected in 13 strains. The unknown aminolipid AL1 was found in the extracts of 17 strains. Unbranched saturated and unsaturated compounds predominated in the fatty acid profiles. Major fatty acids were usually C16:0, C18:0, C18:1 omega9c and 'Summed feature 5' (C18:2 omega6, 9c/C18:0 anteiso). Our results demonstrated that members of the M. mycoides cluster showed rather homogenous polar lipid and fatty acid profiles. In contrast, each of the other strains was characterized by a unique polar lipid profile and significant quantitative differences in the presence of certain fatty acids. These results indicate that analyses of both polar lipid and fatty acid profiles could be a useful tool for classification of mycoplasmas.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hanna Lucia Worliczek
- Institute for Bacteriology, Mycology and Hygiene, University of Veterinary Medicine, Veterinärplatz 1, A-1210 Vienna, Austria
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Yavlovich A, Katzenell A, Tarshis M, Higazi AAR, Rottem S. Mycoplasma fermentans binds to and invades HeLa cells: involvement of plasminogen and urokinase. Infect Immun 2004; 72:5004-11. [PMID: 15321992 PMCID: PMC517474 DOI: 10.1128/iai.72.9.5004-5011.2004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/10/2003] [Revised: 04/27/2004] [Accepted: 06/03/2004] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Adherence of Mycoplasma fermentans to HeLa cells followed saturation kinetics, required a divalent cation, and was enhanced by preincubation of the organism at 37 degrees C for 1 h in a low-osmolarity solution. Proteolytic digestion, choline phosphate, or anti-choline phosphate antibodies partially inhibited the adherence, supporting the notion that M. fermentans utilizes at least two surface components for adhesion, a protease-sensitive surface protein and a phosphocholine-containing glycolipid. Plasminogen binding to M. fermentans greatly increased the maximal adherence of the organism to HeLa cells. Anti-plasminogen antibodies and free plasminogen inhibited this increase. These observations suggest that in the presence of plasminogen the organism adheres to novel sites on the HeLa cell surface, which are apparently plasminogen receptors. Plasminogen-bound M. fermentans was detected exclusively on the cell surface of the infected HeLa cells. Nevertheless, plasminogen binding in the presence of the urokinase-type plasminogen activator (uPA) promoted the invasion of HeLa cells by M. fermentans. The latter finding indicates that the invasiveness of M. fermentans does not result from binding plasminogen but from activation of the bound plasminogen to plasmin. Cholesterol depletion and sequestration with beta-cyclodextrin and filipin, respectively, did not affect the capacity of M. fermentans to adhere, but invasion of HeLa cells by uPA-activated plasminogen-bound M. fermentans was impaired, suggesting that lipid rafts are implicated in M. fermentans entry.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amichai Yavlovich
- Department of Membrane and Ultrastructure Research, The Hebrew University-Hadassah Medical School, Jerusalem 91120, Israel
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Ben-Menachem G, Kubler-Kielb J, Coxon B, Yergey A, Schneerson R. A newly discovered cholesteryl galactoside from Borrelia burgdorferi. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2003; 100:7913-8. [PMID: 12799465 PMCID: PMC164687 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1232451100] [Citation(s) in RCA: 123] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Two major glycolipids, which comprise approximately 36% of the total lipid mass from Borrelia burgdorferi, the etiological agent of Lyme disease, were investigated. We determined the fatty acid type, sugar identity, anomeric configuration, and substituent type and position. The structures were identified as cholesteryl 6-O-acyl-beta-d-galactopyranoside (B. burgdorferi glycolipid 1, BbGL-I), and 1,2-di-O-acyl-3-O-alpha-d-galactopyranosyl-sn-glycerol (BbGL-II). The major fatty acids were palmitate and oleate. The structures were corroborated by gas-liquid chromatography MS, matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization time-of-flight spectroscopy, fast atom bombardment MS, detailed NMR spectrometry, and metabolic labeling. This is a previously undescribed demonstration of a cholesteryl galactoside in bacteria. Lipopolysaccharide was not detected in B. burgdorferi. The two glycolipids have several properties suggesting they may function as lipopolysaccharide: both are main components of the bacterial membrane, surface exposed, and have a three-domain structure. BbGL-I elicited specific antibodies in mice and rabbits, and BbGL-II elicited antibodies that reacted with both glycolipids.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gil Ben-Menachem
- Laboratory of Developmental and Molecular Immunity, National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA.
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Abstract
Choline-containing lipids were identified and characterized in the cell membrane of Mycoplasma fermentans and were shown to participate in the adhesion to the surface of eukaryotic cells, to stimulate mycoplasma fusion with eukaryotic cells, and to induce cytokine secretion by cells of the immune system. These findings suggest that choline-containing lipids are important mediators of tissue pathology in the infectious process caused by M. fermentans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shlomo Rottem
- Department of Membrane and Ultrastructure Research, The Hebrew University-Hadassah Medical School, P.O. Box 12272, Jerusalem 91120, Israel.
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Ben-Menachem G, Zähringer U, Rottem S. The phosphocholine motif in membranes of Mycoplasma fermentans strains. FEMS Microbiol Lett 2001; 199:137-41. [PMID: 11356581 DOI: 10.1111/j.1574-6968.2001.tb10664.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Mycoplasma fermentans strains differ in the profile of choline-containing phosphoglycolipids (PGL) present in their cell membrane. MfGL-II [Zähringer et al. (1997) J. Biol. Chem. 272, 26262-26270] was found to be the major PGL in most strains tested. However, in the pulmonary isolates, M52 and M39 the major choline-containing PGLs were MfGL-I [Matsuda et al. (1994) J. Biol. Chem. 269, 33123-33129] and MfEL, a unique choline-containing ether lipid recently identified by us [Wagner et al. (2000) Eur. J. Biochem. 267, 6276-6286]. MfGL-I, MfGL-II and MfEL were metabolically labeled by growing the cells with radioactive choline but only MfGL-I and MfGL-II [corrected] reacted with antiphosphocholine antibodies. All tested strains fused with Molt-3 cells at almost the same rate and to about the same extent and in all the strains membrane proteins that reacted with anti-phosphocholine antibodies were detected, indicating that some membrane proteins are decorated with phosphocholine moieties.
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Affiliation(s)
- G Ben-Menachem
- Department of Membrane and Ultrastructure Research, The Hebrew University-Hadassah Medical School, Jerusalem, Israel
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Matsuda K, Li JL, Ichinose S, Harasawa R, Saito M, Yamamoto N. Monoclonal antibody against Mycoplasma fermentans-specific aminoglycoglycerolipid. Microbiol Immunol 2001; 44:695-702. [PMID: 11021400 DOI: 10.1111/j.1348-0421.2000.tb02551.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
Previously, we reported that Mycoplasma fermentans has specific antigens (phosphocholine-containing glycoglycerolipids: GGPL-I and GGPL-III) and discussed the possibility of their pathogenic role. In this paper, we report the characterization of a monoclonal antibody (MF-III-1) specific to GGPL-III (phosphocholine-containing aminoglycoglycerolipid) using methods of electron microscopy, immunofluorescence cell surface staining, laser scanning microscopy, immunoelectron microscopy, and thin-layer chromatography immunostaining. The MF-III-1 antibody specifically recognized M. fermentans attached to the surface of HTLV-I-infected human helper T-cells, and it did not cross-react with other lipids nor with human T-cell antigens. Since MF-III-1 distinguishes GGPL-III from GGPL-I, the binding site may include a serinol (2-amino-1,3-propanediol) residue of GGPL-III. MF-III-1 is useful for the in vitro study of M. fermentans, and may also be useful as a tool for the study of the involvement of M. fermentans in human diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- K Matsuda
- Department of Microbiology, Tokyo Medical and Dental University, Japan.
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Wagner F, Rottem S, Held HD, Uhlig S, Zähringer U. Ether lipids in the cell membrane of Mycoplasma fermentans. EUROPEAN JOURNAL OF BIOCHEMISTRY 2000; 267:6276-86. [PMID: 11012682 DOI: 10.1046/j.1432-1327.2000.01709.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
Abstract
Two new ether lipids, 1-O-alkyl/alkenyl-2-O-acyl-glycero-3-phosphocholine and its lyso form, 1-O-alkyl/alkenyl-glycero-3-phosphocholine, were identified in the cell membrane of Mycoplasma fermentans using chemical analyses, GLC-MS, MALDI-TOF MS, and 1D and 2D NMR spectroscopy. The lipids are heterogeneous with respect to both acyl and alkyl/alkenyl residues. The acyl residues at position 2 of glycerol are hexadecanoyl and octadecanoyl in a molar ratio of 3.6 : 1 with a trace amount of octadecenoyl. The alkyl/alkenyl residues at position 1 of glycerol are hexadecyl (78%), octadecyl (7%), octadecenyl (14%), and hexadecenyl (traces). In the octadecenyl residue, the double bond has a cis configuration and is located at either position 1' (plasmalogen-type lipid) or 9' in a ratio approximately 1 : 1. This is the first report of the presence of alkyl and vinyl (alk-1'-enyl) ether lipids in the cell membrane of aerobically grown mycoplasmas. Lipids of this type have been found in some Gram-positive bacteria, thus supporting the hypothesized close taxonomical relationship of these bacteria to mycoplasmas. The ether lipids of M. fermentans are structurally similar to platelet activating factor; it was demonstrated that the 2-O-acetylated lyso form lipid can mimic platelet-activating factor activity in isolated perfused and ventilated rat lungs.
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Affiliation(s)
- F Wagner
- Research Center Borstel, Center for Medicine and Biosciences, Borstel, Germany
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Synthesis and absolute configuration of a novel aminoglycoglycerolipid, species-specific major immunodeterminant of Mycoplasma fermentans. Tetrahedron Lett 1999. [DOI: 10.1016/s0040-4039(99)00191-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
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Abstract
The recent sequencing of the entire genomes of Mycoplasma genitalium and M. pneumoniae has attracted considerable attention to the molecular biology of mycoplasmas, the smallest self-replicating organisms. It appears that we are now much closer to the goal of defining, in molecular terms, the entire machinery of a self-replicating cell. Comparative genomics based on comparison of the genomic makeup of mycoplasmal genomes with those of other bacteria, has opened new ways of looking at the evolutionary history of the mycoplasmas. There is now solid genetic support for the hypothesis that mycoplasmas have evolved as a branch of gram-positive bacteria by a process of reductive evolution. During this process, the mycoplasmas lost considerable portions of their ancestors' chromosomes but retained the genes essential for life. Thus, the mycoplasmal genomes carry a high percentage of conserved genes, greatly facilitating gene annotation. The significant genome compaction that occurred in mycoplasmas was made possible by adopting a parasitic mode of life. The supply of nutrients from their hosts apparently enabled mycoplasmas to lose, during evolution, the genes for many assimilative processes. During their evolution and adaptation to a parasitic mode of life, the mycoplasmas have developed various genetic systems providing a highly plastic set of variable surface proteins to evade the host immune system. The uniqueness of the mycoplasmal systems is manifested by the presence of highly mutable modules combined with an ability to expand the antigenic repertoire by generating structural alternatives, all compressed into limited genomic sequences. In the absence of a cell wall and a periplasmic space, the majority of surface variable antigens in mycoplasmas are lipoproteins. Apart from providing specific antimycoplasmal defense, the host immune system is also involved in the development of pathogenic lesions and exacerbation of mycoplasma induced diseases. Mycoplasmas are able to stimulate as well as suppress lymphocytes in a nonspecific, polyclonal manner, both in vitro and in vivo. As well as to affecting various subsets of lymphocytes, mycoplasmas and mycoplasma-derived cell components modulate the activities of monocytes/macrophages and NK cells and trigger the production of a wide variety of up-regulating and down-regulating cytokines and chemokines. Mycoplasma-mediated secretion of proinflammatory cytokines, such as tumor necrosis factor alpha, interleukin-1 (IL-1), and IL-6, by macrophages and of up-regulating cytokines by mitogenically stimulated lymphocytes plays a major role in mycoplasma-induced immune system modulation and inflammatory responses.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Razin
- Department of Membrane and Ultrastructure Research, The Hebrew University-Hadassah Medical School, Jerusalem 91120, Israel.
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Ben-Menachem G, Rottem S, Tarshis M, Barash V, Brenner T. Mycoplasma fermentans glycolipid triggers inflammatory response in rat astrocytes. Brain Res 1998; 803:34-8. [PMID: 9729257 DOI: 10.1016/s0006-8993(98)00573-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Mycoplasma fermentans glycolipid (MfGL-II) is a major lipid in the membranes of this AIDS-associated mycoplasma and constituting up to 20% of the total phospholipids of this organism. It was recently shown that MfGL-II, mainly through its phosphocholine moiety, is responsible for the attachment of M. fermentans to host cells. We now show that MfGL-II is also associated with the secretion of inflammatory mediators by cells of the central nervous system. Stimulation of primary rat astrocytes by MfGL-II caused activation of protein kinase C, secretion of nitric oxide (NO) and prostaglandin E2, and augmented glucose utilization and lactate formation in a dose-dependent manner. In an attempt to define the minimal structural requirements for MfGL-II activity, the two O-acylated fatty acids in the molecule were removed. Deacylation pronouncedly reduced the stimulatory activity of the glycolipid, suggesting that the fatty acyl residues are essential. Incubation of MfGL-II with polyclonal anti-MfGL-II antiserum or with monoclonal anti-phosphocholine antibody diminished NO release, whereas incubation of MfGL-II with normal rabbit serum had no effect. It is, therefore, likely that the terminal phosphocholine moiety plays an important role in MfGL-IIs stimulation of glial cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- G Ben-Menachem
- Department of Membrane and Ultrastructure Research, The Hebrew University-Hadassah Medical School, P.O. Box 12272, Jerusalem, Israel
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Neyrolles O, Brenner C, Prevost MC, Fontaine T, Montagnier L, Blanchard A. Identification of two glycosylated components of Mycoplasma penetrans: a surface-exposed capsular polysaccharide and a glycolipid fraction. MICROBIOLOGY (READING, ENGLAND) 1998; 144 ( Pt 5):1247-1255. [PMID: 9611799 DOI: 10.1099/00221287-144-5-1247] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Among the wall-less mycoplasmas only a few species have been identified with a capsule at their cell surface. Mycoplasma penetrans is a recently identified mycoplasma with unique morphology, isolated from HIV-infected patients. Using transmission electron microscopy, it was found that M. penetrans is surrounded by capsular material 11 nm (strain GTU-54-6A1) to 30 nm (strain HF-2) thick, which can be stained with ruthenium red and labelled with cationized ferritin. The polysaccharide composition of this capsule was indicated by its staining with periodic acid-thiocarbohydrazide silver proteinate and the abolition of ruthenium red staining of the cell surface by neuraminidase treatment. In addition, proteinase K treatment of the M. penetrans cells resulted in removal of the capsule, suggesting that polypeptides may contribute in anchoring it to the membrane or in its stability. Two different types of glycosylated material were detected in mycoplasma extracts by SDS-PAGE and periodic acid-Schiff staining. The first component was a high-molecular-mass material, which was heat- and proteinase-K-labile and which probably constitutes the capsular polymer. The other component was a low-molecular-mass glycolipid fraction, which was proteinase-K-, heat- and EDTA-resistant. The identification of a capsule at the M. penetrans cell surface is of particular interest for a mycoplasma which has been shown to adhere to various host cells and to penetrate into their intracellular compartments. The capsule may have significance in the pathogenesis of disease associated with infection by this organism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Olivier Neyrolles
- Unité d'Oncologie Virale28, rue du Dr Roux, 75724 Paris Cedex 15, France
| | - Catherine Brenner
- Unité d'Oncologie Virale28, rue du Dr Roux, 75724 Paris Cedex 15, France
| | | | - Thierry Fontaine
- Laboratoire des Aspergillus Institut Pasteur, 28, rue du Dr Roux, 75724 Paris Cedex 15, France
| | - Luc Montagnier
- Unité d'Oncologie Virale28, rue du Dr Roux, 75724 Paris Cedex 15, France
| | - Alain Blanchard
- Unité d'Oncologie Virale28, rue du Dr Roux, 75724 Paris Cedex 15, France
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