Masking of transmembrane-based retention signals controls ER export of gamma-secretase

Selective regulation of aspartyl intramembrane protease activity by calnexin

Signal peptide peptidase-like 2c (SPPL2c) is a testis-specific aspartyl intramembrane protease that contributes to male gamete function both by catalytic and non-proteolytic mechanisms. Here, we provide an unbiased characterisation of the in vivo interactome of SPPL2c identifying the ER chaperone calnexin as novel binding partner of this enzyme. Recruitment of calnexin specifically required the N-glycosylation within the N-terminal protease-associated domain of SPPL2c. Importantly, mutation of the single glycosylation site of SPPL2c or loss of calnexin expression completely prevented SPPL2c-mediated intramembrane proteolysis of all tested substrates. By contrast and despite rather promiscuous binding of calnexin to other SPP/SPPL proteases, expression of the chaperone was exclusively required for SPPL2c-mediated proteolysis. Despite some impact on the stability of SPPL2c most presumably due to assistance in folding of the luminal domain of the protease, calnexin appeared to be recruited rather constitutively to the protease thereby boosting its catalytic activity. In summary, we describe a novel, highly specific mode of intramembrane protease regulation, highlighting the need to systematically approach control mechanisms governing the proteolytic activity of other members of the aspartyl intramembrane protease family.

C11orf94/Frey is a key regulator for male fertility by controlling Izumo1 complex assembly

Although gamete fusion represents the central event in sexual reproduction, the required protein machinery is poorly defined. In sperm cells, Izumo1 and several Izumo1-associated proteins play an essential role for this process. However, so far, the mechanisms underlying transport and maturation of Izumo1 and its incorporation into high molecular weight complexes are incompletely defined. Here, we provide a detailed characterization of the C11orf94 protein, which we rename Frey, which provides a platform for the assembly of Izumo1 complexes. By retaining Izumo1 in the endoplasmic reticulum, Frey facilitates its incorporation into high molecular weight complexes. To fulfill its function, the unstable Frey protein is stabilized within the catalytic center of an intramembrane protease. Loss of Frey results in reduced assembly of Izumo1 complexes and male infertility due to impaired gamete fusion. Collectively, these findings provide mechanistic insights into the early biogenesis and functional relevance of Izumo1 complexes.

Protein quality control at the Golgi

The majority of the proteome in eukaryotic cells is targeted to organelles. To maintain protein homeostasis (proteostasis), distinct protein quality control (PQC) machineries operate on organelles, where they detect misfolded proteins, orphaned and mis-localized proteins and selectively target these proteins into different ubiquitin-dependent or -independent degradation pathways. Thereby, PQC prevents proteotoxic effects that would disrupt organelle integrity and cause cellular damage that leads to diseases. Here, we will discuss emerging mechanisms for PQC machineries at the Golgi apparatus, the central station for the sorting and the modification of proteins that traffic to the endo-lysosomal system, or along the secretory pathway to the PM and to the extracellular space. We will focus on Golgi PQC pathways that (1) retrieve misfolded and orphaned proteins from the Golgi back to the endoplasmic reticulum, (2) extract these proteins from Golgi membranes for proteasomal degradation, (3) or selectively target these proteins to lysosomes for degradation.

Bring it back, bring it back, don't take it away from me - the sorting receptor RER1

The quote "bring it back, bring it back, don't take it away from me" from Queen's Love of my life describes the function of the sorting receptor RER1, a 23 kDa protein with four transmembrane domains (TMDs) that localizes to the intermediate compartment and the cis-Golgi. From there it returns escaped proteins that are not supposed to leave the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) back to it. Unique about RER1 is its ability to recognize its ligands through binding motifs in TMDs. Among its substrates are ER-resident proteins, as well as unassembled subunits of multimeric complexes that are retrieved back into the ER, this way guarding the full assembly of their respective complexes. The basic mechanisms for RER1-dependent retrieval have been already elucidated some years ago in yeast. More recently, several important cargoes of RER1 have been described in mammalian cells, and the in vivo role of RER1 is being unveiled by using mouse models. In this Review, we give an overview of the cell biology of RER1 in different models, discuss its controversial role in the brain and provide an outlook on future directions for RER1 research.

Structure-activity relationship of presenilin in γ-secretase-mediated intramembrane cleavage

Genetic research on familial cases of Alzheimer disease have identified presenilin (PS) as an important membrane protein in the pathomechanism of this disease. PS is the catalytic subunit of γ-secretase, which is responsible for the generation of amyloid-β peptide deposited in the brains of Alzheimer disease patients. γ-Secretase is an atypical protease composed of four membrane proteins (i.e., presenilin, nicastrin, anterior pharynx defective-1 (Aph-1), and presenilin enhancer-2 (Pen-2)) and mediates intramembrane proteolysis. Numerous investigations have been conducted toward understanding the structural features of γ-secretase components as well as the cleavage mechanism of γ-secretase. In this review, we summarize our current understanding of the structure and activity relationship of the γ-secretase complex.

The sorting receptor Rer1 controls Purkinje cell function via voltage gated sodium channels

Rer1 is a sorting receptor in the early secretory pathway that controls the assembly and the cell surface transport of selected multimeric membrane protein complexes. Mice with a Purkinje cell (PC) specific deletion of Rer1 showed normal polarization and differentiation of PCs and normal development of the cerebellum. However, PC-specific loss of Rer1 led to age-dependent motor deficits in beam walk, ladder climbing and gait. Analysis of brain sections revealed a specific degeneration of PCs in the anterior cerebellar lobe in old animals. Electrophysiological recordings demonstrated severe deficits in spontaneous action potential generation. Measurements of resurgent currents indicated decreased surface densities of voltage-gated sodium channels (Na_v), but not changes in individual channels. Analysis of mice with a whole brain Rer1-deletion demonstrated a strong down-regulation of Na_v1.6 and 1.1 in the absence of Rer1, whereas protein levels of the related Ca_v2.1 and of K_v3.3 and 7.2 channels were not affected. The data suggest that Rer1 controls the assembly and transport of Na_v1.1 and 1.6, the principal sodium channels responsible for recurrent firing, in PCs.

Membrane trafficking and proteolytic activity of γ-secretase in Alzheimer’s disease

γ-Secretase is an intramembrane-cleaving protease that generates various forms of amyloid-β peptides (Aβ) that accumulate in the brains of Alzheimer’s disease (AD) patients. The intracellular trafficking and subcellular localization of γ-secretase are linked to both qualitative and quantitative changes in Aβ production. However, the precise intracellular localization of γ-secretase as well as its detailed regulatory mechanisms have remained elusive. Recent genetic studies on AD provide ample evidence that alteration of the subcellular localization of γ-secretase contributes to the pathogenesis of AD. Here we review our current understanding of the intracellular membrane trafficking of γ-secretase, the association between its localization and proteolytic activity, and the possibility of γ-secretase as a therapeutic target against AD.

Presenilin 1 and Presenilin 2 Target γ-Secretase Complexes to Distinct Cellular Compartments

γ-Secretase complexes achieve the production of amyloid peptides playing a key role in Alzheimer disease. These proteases have many substrates involved in important physiological functions. They are composed of two constant subunits, nicastrin and PEN2, and two variable ones, presenilin (PS1 or PS2) and APH1 (APH1aL, APH1aS, or APH1b). Whether the composition of a given γ-secretase complex determines a specific cellular targeting remains unsolved. Here we combined a bidirectional inducible promoter and 2A peptide technology to generate constructs for the temporary, stoichiometric co-expression of six different combinations of the four γ-secretase subunits including EGFP-tagged nicastrin. These plasmids allow for the formation of functional γ-secretase complexes displaying specific activities and maturations. We show that PS1-containing γ-secretase complexes were targeted to the plasma membrane, whereas PS2-containing ones were addressed to the trans-Golgi network, to recycling endosomes, and, depending on the APH1-variant, to late endocytic compartments. Overall, these novel constructs unravel a presenilin-dependent subcellular targeting of γ-secretase complexes. These tools should prove useful to determine whether the cellular distribution of γ-secretase complexes contributes to substrate selectivity and to delineate regulations of their trafficking.

G206D Mutation of Presenilin-1 Reduces Pen2 Interaction, Increases Aβ42/Aβ40 Ratio and Elevates ER Ca(2+) Accumulation

Early-onset familial Alzheimer's disease (AD) is most commonly associated with the mutations in presenilin-1 (PS1). PS1 is the catalytic component of the γ-secretase complex, which cleaves amyloid precursor protein to produce amyloid-β (Aβ), the major cause of AD. Presenilin enhancer 2 (Pen2) is critical for activating γ-secretase and exporting PS1 from endoplasmic reticulum (ER). Among all the familial AD-linked PS1 mutations, mutations at the G206 amino acid are the most adjacent position to the Pen2 binding site. Here, we characterized the effect of a familial AD-linked PS1 G206D mutation on the PS1-Pen2 interaction and the accompanied alteration in γ-secretase-dependent and -independent functions. We found that the G206D mutation reduced PS1-Pen2 interaction, but did not abolish γ-secretase formation and PS1 endoproteolysis. For γ-secretase-dependent function, the G206D mutation increased Aβ42 production but not Notch cleavage. For γ-secretase-independent function, this mutation disrupted the ER calcium homeostasis but not lysosomal calcium homeostasis and autophagosome maturation. Impaired ER calcium homeostasis may due to the reduced mutant PS1 level in the ER. Although this mutation did not alter the cell survival under stress, both increased Aβ42 ratio and disturbed ER calcium regulation could be the mechanisms underlying the pathogenesis of the familial AD-linked PS1 G206D mutation.

Gamma-secretase subunits associate in intracellular membrane compartments in Arabidopsis thaliana

Gamma-secretase is a multisubunit complex with intramembrane proteolytic activity. In humans it was identified in genetic screens of patients suffering from familial forms of Alzheimer's disease, and since then it was shown to mediate cleavage of more than 80 substrates, including amyloid precursor protein or Notch receptor. Moreover, in animals, γ-secretase was shown to be involved in regulation of a wide range of cellular events, including cell signalling, regulation of endocytosis of membrane proteins, their trafficking, and degradation. Here we show that genes coding for γ-secretase homologues are present in plant genomes. Also, amino acid motifs crucial for γ-secretase activity are conserved in plants. Moreover, all γ-secretase subunits: PS1/PS2, APH-1, PEN-2, and NCT colocalize and interact with each other in Arabidopsis thaliana protoplasts. The intracellular localization of γ-secretase subunits in Arabidopsis protoplasts revealed a distribution in endomembrane system compartments that is consistent with data from animal studies. Together, our data may be considered as a starting point for analysis of γ-secretase in plants.

Pen-2 is essential for γ-secretase complex stability and trafficking but partially dispensable for endoproteolysis

The 19-transmembrane γ-secretase complex generates the amyloid β-peptide of Alzheimer’s disease by intramembrane proteolysis of the β-amyloid precursor protein. This complex is comprised of presenilin, Aph1, nicastrin, and Pen-2. The exact function and mechanism of the highly conserved Pen-2 subunit remain poorly understood. Using systematic mutagenesis, we confirm and extend our understanding of which key regions and specific residues play roles in various aspects of γ-secretase function, including maturation, localization, and activity, but not processivity. In general, mutations (1) within the first half of transmembrane domain (TMD) 1 of Pen-2 decreased PS1 endoproteolysis and γ-secretase proteolytic activity, (2) within the second half of TMD1 increased proteolytic activity, (3) within the cytosolic loop region decreased proteolytic activity, (4) within TMD2 decreased PS1 endoproteolysis, (5) within the first half of TMD2 decreased proteolytic activity, and (6) within C-terminal residues decreased proteolytic activity. Specific mutational effects included N33A in TMD1 causing an increase in γ-secretase complexes at the cell surface and a modest decrease in stability and the previously unreported I53A mutation in the loop region reducing stability 10-fold and proteolytic activity by half. In addition, we confirm that minor PS1 endoproteolysis can occur in the complete absence of Pen-2. Together, these data suggest that rather than solely being a catalyst for γ-secretase endoproteolysis, Pen-2 may also stabilize the complex prior to PS1 endoproteolysis, allowing time for full assembly and proper trafficking.

Protein quality control by Rer1p in the early secretory pathway: from mechanism to implication in Alzheimer's disease

γ-Secretase-mediated production of amyloid β from the amyloid precursor protein is recognized as a central player in the neuropathogenesis of Alzheimer’s disease (AD). One of the most peculiar features of this enzymatic activity is the fact that it targets transmembrane domains of mostly type I integral membrane proteins and thus manages to proteolyse peptide bonds within the hydrophobic lipid bilayers. In addition, γ-secretase does not exert its activity solely towards amyloid precursor protein, but to an increasing number of membrane proteins, including Notch, cadherins, syndecans, and so on. Because of the requirement of intramembrane proteolysis for a plethora of signaling pathways and cellular processes during embryonic development and organ physiology, this enzyme has drawn a lot of attention in the past 20 years. γ-Secretase is a multimeric transmembrane complex consisting of the catalytic presenilin, nicastrin, presenilin enhancer 2 (PEN2) and anterior-pharynx defective-1 (APH1) subunits. Proper assembly into functional complexes requires quality control mechanisms associated with the early biosynthetic compartments and allows mature complexes to transit to distal compartments where its activity is required. We previously identified Retrieval to ER protein 1 (Rer1p) as the first negative regulator of the stepwise assembly of γ-secretase during endoplasmic reticulum-to-Golgi transport. We review here the state of the art on how Rer1p regulates complex assembly, particularly γ-secretase, and evaluate the therapeutic potential of such regulatory processes in the context of AD.

The very many faces of presenilins and the γ-secretase complex

Presenilin is a central, catalytic component of the γ-secretase complex which conducts intramembrane cleavage of various protein substrates. Although identified and mainly studied through its role in the development of amyloid plaques in Alzheimer disease, γ-secretase has many other important functions. The complex seems to be evolutionary conserved throughout the Metazoa, but recent findings in plants and Dictyostelium discoideum as well as in archeons suggest that its evolution and functions might be much more diversified than previously expected. In this review, a selective survey of the multitude of functions of presenilins and the γ-secretase complex is presented. Following a brief overview of γ-secretase structure, assembly and maturation, three functional aspects are analyzed: (1) the role of γ-secretase in autophagy and phagocytosis; (2) involvement of the complex in signaling related to endocytosis; and (3) control of calcium fluxes by presenilins.

Protein trafficking and maturation regulate intramembrane proteolysis

Intramembrane-cleaving proteases (I-CLiPs) are membrane embedded proteolytic enzymes. All substrates identified so far are also membrane proteins, involving a number of critical cellular signaling as well as human diseases. After synthesis and assembly at the endoplasmic reticulum, membrane proteins are exported to the Golgi apparatus and transported to their sites of action. A number of studies have revealed the importance of the intracellular membrane trafficking in i-CLiP-mediated intramembrane proteolysis, not only for limiting the unnecessary encounter between i-CLiPs and their substrate but also for their cleavage site preference. In this review, we will discuss recent advances in our understanding of how each i-CLiP proteolysis is regulated by intracellular vesicle trafficking. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled: Intramembrane Proteases.

A patient with posterior cortical atrophy possesses a novel mutation in the presenilin 1 gene

Posterior cortical atrophy is a dementia syndrome with symptoms of cortical visual dysfunction, associated with amyloid plaques and neurofibrillary tangles predominantly affecting visual association cortex. Most patients diagnosed with posterior cortical atrophy will finally develop a typical Alzheimer's disease. However, there are a variety of neuropathological processes, which could lead towards a clinical presentation of posterior cortical atrophy. Mutations in the presenilin 1 gene, affecting the function of γ-secretase, are the most common genetic cause of familial, early-onset Alzheimer's disease. Here we present a patient with a clinical diagnosis of posterior cortical atrophy who harbors a novel Presenilin 1 mutation (I211M). In silico analysis predicts that the mutation could influence the interaction between presenilin 1 and presenilin1 enhancer-2 protein, a protein partner within the γ-secretase complex. These findings along with published literature support the inclusion of posterior cortical atrophy on the Alzheimer's disease spectrum.

Erlin-2 is associated with active γ-secretase in brain and affects amyloid β-peptide production

The transmembrane protease complex γ-secretase is responsible for the generation of the neurotoxic amyloid β-peptide (Aβ) from its precursor (APP). Aβ has a causative role in Alzheimer disease, and thus, γ-secretase is a therapeutic target. However, since there are more than 70 γ-secretase substrates besides APP, selective inhibition of APP processing is required. Recent data indicates the existence of several γ-secretase associated proteins (GSAPs) that affect the selection and processing of substrates. Here, we use a γ-secretase inhibitor for affinity purification of γ-secretase and associated proteins from microsomes and detergent resistant membranes (DRMs) prepared from rat or human brain. By tandem mass spectrometry we identified a novel brain GSAP; erlin-2. This protein was recently reported to reside in DRMs in the ER. A proximity ligation assay, as well as co-immunoprecipitation, confirmed the association of erlin-2 with γ-secretase. We found that a higher proportion of erlin-2 was associated with γ-secretase in DRMs than in soluble membranes. siRNA experiments indicated that reduced levels of erlin-2 resulted in a decreased Aβ production, whereas the effect on Notch processing was limited. In summary, we have found a novel brain GSAP, erlin-2, that resides in DRMs and affects Aβ production.

Lack of evidence for presenilins as endoplasmic reticulum Ca2+ leak channels

Familial Alzheimer disease (FAD) is linked to mutations in the presenilin (PS) homologs. FAD mutant PS expression has several cellular consequences, including exaggerated intracellular Ca(2+) ([Ca(2+)](i)) signaling due to enhanced agonist sensitivity and increased magnitude of [Ca(2+)](i) signals. The mechanisms underlying these phenomena remain controversial. It has been proposed that PSs are constitutively active, passive endoplasmic reticulum (ER) Ca(2+) leak channels and that FAD PS mutations disrupt this function resulting in ER store overfilling that increases the driving force for release upon ER Ca(2+) release channel opening. To investigate this hypothesis, we employed multiple Ca(2+) imaging protocols and indicators to directly measure ER Ca(2+) dynamics in several cell systems. However, we did not observe consistent evidence that PSs act as ER Ca(2+) leak channels. Nevertheless, we confirmed observations made using indirect measurements employed in previous reports that proposed this hypothesis. Specifically, cells lacking PS or expressing a FAD-linked PS mutation displayed increased area under the ionomycin-induced [Ca(2+)](i) versus time curve (AI) compared with cells expressing WT PS. However, an ER-targeted Ca(2+) indicator revealed that this did not reflect overloaded ER stores. Monensin pretreatment selectively attenuated the AI in cells lacking PS or expressing a FAD PS allele. These findings contradict the hypothesis that PSs form ER Ca(2+) leak channels and highlight the need to use ER-targeted Ca(2+) indicators when studying ER Ca(2+) dynamics.

Polar transmembrane-based amino acids in presenilin 1 are involved in endoplasmic reticulum localization, Pen2 protein binding, and γ-secretase complex stabilization

γ-Secretase is composed of the four membrane proteins presenilin, nicastrin, Pen2, and Aph1. These four proteins assemble in a coordinated and regulated manner into a high molecular weight complex. The subunits constitute a total of 19 transmembrane domains (TMD), with many carrying important amino acids involved in catalytic activity, interaction with other subunits, or in ER retention/retrieval of unassembled subunits. We here focus on TMD4 of presenilin 1 (PS1) and show that a number of polar amino acids are critical for γ-secretase assembly and function. An asparagine, a threonine, and an aspartate form a polar interface important for endoplasmic reticulum retention/retrieval. A single asparagine in TMD4 of PS1 is involved in a protein-protein interaction by binding to another asparagine in Pen2. Intriguingly, a charged aspartate in TMD4 is critical for γ-secretase activity, most likely by stabilizing the newly formed complex.

Transmembrane helix-helix interactions are modulated by the sequence context and by lipid bilayer properties

Folding of polytopic transmembrane proteins involves interactions of individual transmembrane helices, and multiple TM helix-helix interactions need to be controlled and aligned to result in the final TM protein structure. While defined interaction motifs, such as the GxxxG motif, might be critically involved in transmembrane helix-helix interactions, the sequence context as well as lipid bilayer properties significantly modulate the strength of a sequence specific transmembrane helix-helix interaction. Structures of 11 transmembrane helix dimers have been described today, and the influence of the sequence context as well as of the detergent and lipid environment on a sequence specific dimerization is discussed in light of the available structural information. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled: Protein Folding in Membranes.

Regulated intramembrane proteolysis--lessons from amyloid precursor protein processing

Regulated intramembrane proteolysis (RIP) controls the communication between cells and the extracellular environment. RIP is essential in the nervous system, but also in other tissues. In the RIP process, a membrane protein typically undergoes two consecutive cleavages. The first one results in the shedding of its ectodomain. The second one occurs within its transmembrane domain, resulting in secretion of a small peptide and the release of the intracellular domain into the cytosol. The proteolytic cleavage fragments act as versatile signaling molecules or are further degraded. An increasing number of membrane proteins undergo RIP. These include growth factors, cytokines, cell adhesion proteins, receptors, viral proteins and signal peptides. A dysregulation of RIP is found in diseases, such as leukemia and Alzheimer's disease. One of the first RIP substrates discovered was the amyloid precursor protein (APP). RIP processing of APP controls the generation of the amyloid β-peptide, which is believed to cause Alzheimer's disease. Focusing on APP as the best-studied RIP substrate, this review describes the function and mechanism of the APP RIP proteases with the goal to elucidate cellular mechanisms and common principles of the RIP process in general.