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Abstract
Styrene oligomers (SOs), of styrene (styrene monomer, SM), 1,3-diphenylpropane (styrene dimer, SD1), 2,4-diphenyl-1-butene (styrene dimer, SD2) and 2,4,6-triphenyl-1-hexene (styrene trimer, ST), had been detected in the natural environments far from industrial area. To confirm SOs formation through thermal decomposition of polystyrene (PS) wastes in the nature, purified polystyrene (SO-free PS) has been shown to decompose at 30 to 150 °C. The SO ratio of SM:SD:ST was about 1:1:5 with ST as the main product. Mass spectrometry with selected ion monitoring was used for the quantitative analysis of the trace amounts of SOs. The rate of PS decomposition was obtained as k(year−1)=5.177 exp(−5029/T(K)) based on the amount of ST. Decomposition kinetics indicated that not only does drifting lump PS break up into micro/nano pieces in the ocean, but that it also subsequently undergoes degradation into basic structure units SO. According to the simulation at 30 °C, the amounts of SOs in the ocean will be over 400 MT in 2050.
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Speranza B, Cibelli F, Baiano A, Carlucci A, Raimondo ML, Campaniello D, Viggiani I, Bevilacqua A, Rosaria Corbo M. Removal Ability and Resistance to Cinnamic and Vanillic Acids by Fungi. Microorganisms 2020; 8:microorganisms8060930. [PMID: 32575643 PMCID: PMC7356749 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms8060930] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/05/2020] [Revised: 06/03/2020] [Accepted: 06/18/2020] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
Twelve fungal strains were assayed to investigate their resistance to cinnamic and vanillic acids and their ability to remove these compounds from a liquid medium. In a first step, the effect of the two aromatic acids (1 g/L) on the fungal growth kinetic was studied. The results were modelled through a logistic like function (Dantigny equation) to estimate τ, which is the time to the half-maximum colony diameter. The key findings of this part were as follows: (i) generally, cinnamic acid exerted a stronger effect than vanillic acid; (ii) aromatic acids exerted a delay on the growth of some fungi and only one strain (Athelia rolfsii) was completely inhibited. In the second part, fungi were assayed to investigate their ability to remove cinnamic and vanillic acids (ca. 350 mg/kg) from liquid media at pH 3.5. The results indicated that the most efficient fungi were Aspergillus niger and Lasiodiplodia theobromae.
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Becerril R, Manso S, Nerín C. Metabolites identified as interaction products between EOs from food packaging and selected microorganisms. Lebensm Wiss Technol 2019. [DOI: 10.1016/j.lwt.2019.108518] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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Lubbers RJM, Dilokpimol A, Navarro J, Peng M, Wang M, Lipzen A, Ng V, Grigoriev IV, Visser J, Hildén KS, de Vries RP. Cinnamic Acid and Sorbic acid Conversion Are Mediated by the Same Transcriptional Regulator in Aspergillus niger. Front Bioeng Biotechnol 2019; 7:249. [PMID: 31612133 PMCID: PMC6776626 DOI: 10.3389/fbioe.2019.00249] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/13/2019] [Accepted: 09/16/2019] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Cinnamic acid is an aromatic compound commonly found in plants and functions as a central intermediate in lignin synthesis. Filamentous fungi are able to degrade cinnamic acid through multiple metabolic pathways. One of the best studied pathways is the non-oxidative decarboxylation of cinnamic acid to styrene. In Aspergillus niger, the enzymes cinnamic acid decarboxylase (CdcA, formally ferulic acid decarboxylase) and the flavin prenyltransferase (PadA) catalyze together the non-oxidative decarboxylation of cinnamic acid and sorbic acid. The corresponding genes, cdcA and padA, are clustered in the genome together with a putative transcription factor previously named sorbic acid decarboxylase regulator (SdrA). While SdrA was predicted to be involved in the regulation of the non-oxidative decarboxylation of cinnamic acid and sorbic acid, this was never functionally analyzed. In this study, A. niger deletion mutants of sdrA, cdcA, and padA were made to further investigate the role of SdrA in cinnamic acid metabolism. Phenotypic analysis revealed that cdcA, sdrA and padA are exclusively involved in the degradation of cinnamic acid and sorbic acid and not required for other related aromatic compounds. Whole genome transcriptome analysis of ΔsdrA grown on different cinnamic acid related compounds, revealed additional target genes, which were also clustered with cdcA, sdrA, and padA in the A. niger genome. Synteny analysis using 30 Aspergillus genomes demonstrated a conserved cinnamic acid decarboxylation gene cluster in most Aspergilli of the Nigri clade. Aspergilli lacking certain genes in the cluster were unable to grow on cinnamic acid, but could still grow on related aromatic compounds, confirming the specific role of these three genes for cinnamic acid metabolism of A. niger.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ronnie J. M. Lubbers
- Fungal Physiology, Westerdijk Fungal Biodiversity Institute and Fungal Molecular Physiology, Utrecht University, Utrecht, Netherlands
| | - Adiphol Dilokpimol
- Fungal Physiology, Westerdijk Fungal Biodiversity Institute and Fungal Molecular Physiology, Utrecht University, Utrecht, Netherlands
| | - Jorge Navarro
- Fungal Natural Products, Westerdijk Fungal Biodiversity Institute, Utrecht, Netherlands
| | - Mao Peng
- Fungal Physiology, Westerdijk Fungal Biodiversity Institute and Fungal Molecular Physiology, Utrecht University, Utrecht, Netherlands
| | - Mei Wang
- US Department of Energy Joint Genome Institute, Walnut Creek, CA, United States
| | - Anna Lipzen
- US Department of Energy Joint Genome Institute, Walnut Creek, CA, United States
| | - Vivian Ng
- US Department of Energy Joint Genome Institute, Walnut Creek, CA, United States
| | - Igor V. Grigoriev
- US Department of Energy Joint Genome Institute, Walnut Creek, CA, United States
| | - Jaap Visser
- Fungal Physiology, Westerdijk Fungal Biodiversity Institute and Fungal Molecular Physiology, Utrecht University, Utrecht, Netherlands
| | | | - Ronald P. de Vries
- Fungal Physiology, Westerdijk Fungal Biodiversity Institute and Fungal Molecular Physiology, Utrecht University, Utrecht, Netherlands
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Banton MI, Bus JS, Collins JJ, Delzell E, Gelbke HP, Kester JE, Moore MM, Waites R, Sarang SS. Evaluation of potential health effects associated with occupational and environmental exposure to styrene - an update. JOURNAL OF TOXICOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH. PART B, CRITICAL REVIEWS 2019; 22:1-130. [PMID: 31284836 DOI: 10.1080/10937404.2019.1633718] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
The potential chronic health risks of occupational and environmental exposure to styrene were evaluated to update health hazard and exposure information developed since the Harvard Center for Risk Analysis risk assessment for styrene was performed in 2002. The updated hazard assessment of styrene's health effects indicates human cancers and ototoxicity remain potential concerns. However, mechanistic research on mouse lung tumors demonstrates these tumors are mouse-specific and of low relevance to human cancer risk. The updated toxicity database supports toxicity reference levels of 20 ppm (equates to 400 mg urinary metabolites mandelic acid + phenylglyoxylic acid/g creatinine) for worker inhalation exposure and 3.7 ppm and 2.5 mg/kg bw/day, respectively, for general population inhalation and oral exposure. No cancer risk value estimates are proposed given the established lack of relevance of mouse lung tumors and inconsistent epidemiology evidence. The updated exposure assessment supports inhalation and ingestion routes as important. The updated risk assessment found estimated risks within acceptable ranges for all age groups of the general population and workers with occupational exposures in non-fiber-reinforced polymer composites industries and fiber-reinforced polymer composites (FRP) workers using closed-mold operations or open-mold operations with respiratory protection. Only FRP workers using open-mold operations not using respiratory protection have risk exceedances for styrene and should be considered for risk management measures. In addition, given the reported interaction of styrene exposure with noise, noise reduction to sustain levels below 85 dB(A) needs be in place.
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Affiliation(s)
- M I Banton
- a Gorge View Consulting LLC , Hood River , OR , USA
| | - J S Bus
- b Health Sciences , Exponent , Midland , MI , USA
| | - J J Collins
- c Health Sciences , Saginaw Valley State University , Saginaw , MI , USA
| | - E Delzell
- d Private consultant , Birmingham , AL , USA
| | | | - J E Kester
- f Kester Consulting LLC , Wentzville , MO , USA
| | | | - R Waites
- h Sabic , Innovative Plastics US LLC , Mount Vernon , IN , USA
| | - S S Sarang
- i Shell Health , Shell International , Houston , TX , USA
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Kim HW, Lee SM, Seo JA, Kim YS. Effects of pH and Cultivation Time on the Formation of Styrene and Volatile Compounds by Penicillium expansum. Molecules 2019; 24:molecules24071333. [PMID: 30987370 PMCID: PMC6479942 DOI: 10.3390/molecules24071333] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/18/2019] [Revised: 03/29/2019] [Accepted: 03/29/2019] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Styrene can be formed by the microbial metabolism of bacteria and fungi. In our previous study, styrene was determined as a spoilage marker of Fuji apples decayed by Penicillium expansum, which is responsible for postharvest diseases. In the present study, P. expansum was cultivated in potato dextrose broth added with phenylalanine—which is a precursor of styrene—using different initial pH values and cultivation times. Volatile compounds were extracted and analyzed using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) combined with stir-bar sorptive extraction. The 76 detected volatile compounds included 3-methylbutan-1-ol, 3-methyl butanal, oct-1-en-3-ol, geosmin, nonanal, hexanal, and γ-decalactone. In particular, the formation of 10 volatile compounds derived from phenylalanine (including styrene and 2-phenylethanol) showed different patterns according to pH and the cultivation time. Partial least square-discriminant analysis (PLS-DA) plots indicated that the volatile compounds were affected more by pH than by the cultivation time. These results indicated that an acidic pH enhances the formation of styrene and that pH could be a critical factor in the production of styrene by P. expansum. This is the first study to analyze volatile compounds produced by P. expansum according to pH and cultivation time and to determine their effects on the formation of styrene.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hye Won Kim
- Department of Food Science and Engineering, Ewha Womans University, Seoul 120-750, Korea.
| | - Sang Mi Lee
- Department of Food Science and Engineering, Ewha Womans University, Seoul 120-750, Korea.
| | - Jeong-Ah Seo
- School of Systems Biomedical Science, Soongsil University 369 Sangdo-ro, Dongjak-gu, Seoul 06978, Korea.
| | - Young-Suk Kim
- Department of Food Science and Engineering, Ewha Womans University, Seoul 120-750, Korea.
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Cao XL, Sparling M, Pelletier L, Dabeka R. Styrene in foods and dietary exposure estimates. Food Addit Contam Part A Chem Anal Control Expo Risk Assess 2018; 35:2045-2051. [DOI: 10.1080/19440049.2018.1512760] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Xu-Liang Cao
- Food Research Division, Bureau of Chemical Safety, Health Canada, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada
| | - Melissa Sparling
- Food Research Division, Bureau of Chemical Safety, Health Canada, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada
| | - Luc Pelletier
- Chemical Health Hazard Assessment Division, Bureau of Chemical Safety, Health Canada, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada
| | - Robert Dabeka
- Food Research Division, Bureau of Chemical Safety, Health Canada, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada
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Friedman M. Chemistry, Antimicrobial Mechanisms, and Antibiotic Activities of Cinnamaldehyde against Pathogenic Bacteria in Animal Feeds and Human Foods. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2017; 65:10406-10423. [PMID: 29155570 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jafc.7b04344] [Citation(s) in RCA: 108] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
Cinnamaldehyde is a major constituent of cinnamon essential oils produced by aromatic cinnamon plants. This compound has been reported to exhibit antimicrobial properties in vitro in laboratory media and in animal feeds and human foods contaminated with disease-causing bacteria including Bacillus cereus, Campylobacter jejuni, Clostridium perfringens, Escherichia coli, Listeria monocytogenes, and Salmonella enterica. This integrated review surveys and interprets our current knowledge of the chemistry, analysis, safety, mechanism of action, and antibiotic activities of cinnamaldehyde in food animal (cattle, lambs, calves, pigs, poultry) diets and in widely consumed liquid (apple, carrot, tomato, and watermelon juices, milk) and solid foods. Solid foods include various fruits (bayberries, blueberries, raspberries, and strawberries), vegetables (carrots, celery, lettuce, spinach, cucumbers, and tomatoes), meats (beef, ham, pork, and frankfurters), poultry (chickens and turkeys), seafood (oysters and shrimp), bread, cheese, eggs, infant formula, and peanut paste. The described findings are not only of fundamental interest but also have practical implications for food safety, nutrition, and animal and human health. The collated information and suggested research needs will hopefully facilitate and guide further studies needed to optimize the use of cinnamaldehyde alone and in combination with other natural antimicrobials and medicinal antibiotics to help prevent and treat food animal and human diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mendel Friedman
- Healthy Processed Foods Research, Western Regional Research Center, Agricultural Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture , Albany, California 94710, United States
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Azeem M, Borg-Karlson AK, Rajarao GK. Sustainable bio-production of styrene from forest waste. BIORESOURCE TECHNOLOGY 2013; 144:684-688. [PMID: 23899574 DOI: 10.1016/j.biortech.2013.07.033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/2013] [Revised: 07/03/2013] [Accepted: 07/09/2013] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
A strain of Penicillium expansum was studied for the production of styrene using forest waste biomass as a feeding substrate. The fungal strain was cultivated on bark of various trees supplemented with yeast extract and the volatiles produced were collected on Tenax TA and analyzed by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. Fungus cultured on grated soft bark of pine (Pinus sylvestris) stems (GPB) and mature bark of oak (Quercus robur) supplemented with yeast extract produced relatively the highest amounts of styrene. The maximum styrene production rate was 52.5 μg/h, 41 μg/h and 27 μg/h from fungus cultivated on 50 mL liquid media with 10 g GPB or mature bark of oak and potato dextrose broth respectively. These promising results suggest that the fungal strain could be used to produce "green" styrene plastics using renewable forest waste biomass.
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Affiliation(s)
- Muhammad Azeem
- KTH Royal Institute of Technology, School of Chemical Science and Engineering, Department of Chemistry, Ecological Chemistry Group, Stockholm, Sweden.
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Azeem M, Rajarao GK, Nordenhem H, Nordlander G, Borg-Karlson AK. Penicillium expansum volatiles reduce pine weevil attraction to host plants. J Chem Ecol 2013; 39:120-8. [PMID: 23297108 PMCID: PMC3562436 DOI: 10.1007/s10886-012-0232-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/19/2012] [Revised: 12/04/2012] [Accepted: 12/12/2012] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
The pine weevil Hylobius abietis (L.) is a severe pest of conifer seedlings in reforested areas of Europe and Asia. To identify minimally toxic and ecologically sustainable compounds for protecting newly planted seedlings, we evaluated the volatile metabolites produced by microbes isolated from H. abietis feces and frass. Female weevils deposit feces and chew bark at oviposition sites, presumably thus protecting eggs from feeding conspecifics. We hypothesize that microbes present in feces/frass are responsible for producing compounds that deter weevils. Here, we describe the isolation of a fungus from feces and frass of H. abietis and the biological activity of its volatile metabolites. The fungus was identified by morphological and molecular methods as Penicillium expansum Link ex. Thom. It was cultured on sterilized H. abietis frass medium in glass flasks, and volatiles were collected by SPME and analyzed by GC-MS. The major volatiles of the fungus were styrene and 3-methylanisole. The nutrient conditions for maximum production of styrene and 3-methylanisole were examined. Large quantities of styrene were produced when the fungus was cultured on grated pine bark with yeast extract. In a multi-choice arena test, styrene significantly reduced male and female pine weevils' attraction to cut pieces of Scots pine twigs, whereas 3-methylanisole only reduced male weevil attraction to pine twigs. These studies suggest that metabolites produced by microbes may be useful as compounds for controlling insects, and could serve as sustainable alternatives to synthetic insecticides.
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Affiliation(s)
- Muhammad Azeem
- KTH Royal Institute of Technology, School of Chemical Science and Engineering, Department of Chemistry, Organic Chemistry, SE-100 44 Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Gunaratna Kuttuva Rajarao
- KTH Royal Institute of Technology, School of Biotechnology, Division of Environmental Microbiology, SE-100 44 Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Henrik Nordenhem
- Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Department of Ecology, P.O. Box 7044, SE-750 07 Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Göran Nordlander
- Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Department of Ecology, P.O. Box 7044, SE-750 07 Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Anna Karin Borg-Karlson
- KTH Royal Institute of Technology, School of Chemical Science and Engineering, Department of Chemistry, Organic Chemistry, SE-100 44 Stockholm, Sweden
- Tartu University, Institute of Technology, Division of Organic Chemistry, Tartu, 50411 Estonia
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Tischler D, Kaschabek SR. Microbial Styrene Degradation: From Basics to Biotechnology. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING 2012. [DOI: 10.1007/978-3-642-23789-8_3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
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