Invasive Species: to eat or not to eat, that is the question

Opening the floodgates for invasion-modelling the distribution dynamics of invasive alien fishes in India

Invasive alien species have become the second major threat to biodiversity affecting all three major ecosystems (terrestrial, marine, and freshwater). Increasing drivers such as habitat destruction, expanding horticulture and aquaculture industries, and global pet and food trade have created pathways for exotic species to be introduced leading to severe impacts on recipient ecosystems. Although relatively less studied than terrestrial ecosystems, freshwater ecosystems are highly susceptible to biological invasions. In India, there has been a noticeable increase in the introduction of alien fish species in freshwater environments. In the current study, we aimed to understand how climate change can affect the dynamics of the biological invasion of invasive alien fishes in India. We also evaluated the river-linking project's impact on the homogenization of biota in Indian freshwater bodies. We used species occurrence records with selected environmental variables to assess vulnerable locations for current and future biological invasion using species distribution models. Our study has identified and mapped the vulnerable regions to invasion in India. Our research indicates that the interlinking of rivers connects susceptible regions housing endangered fish species with invasive hotspots. Invasive alien fishes from the source basin may invade vulnerable basins and compete with the native species. Based on the results, we discuss some of the key areas for the management of these invasive alien species in the freshwater ecosystems.

The introduction of an invasive weed was not followed by the introduction of ethnobotanical knowledge: a review on the ethnobotany of Centaurea solstitialis L. (Asteraceae)

Invasive plants are known for their impacts to ecosystems and societies, but their potential cultural use tend to be unexplored. One important mechanism of plant invasion is the use of "allelochemicals" or "novel weapons": chemical defenses which are new to their invaded habitats and that confer them competitive advantages. However, these chemicals are precisely what confers them ethnobotanical and medicinal properties. We reviewed the literature assessing the biogeography of the cultural uses of the model invasive plant yellow-starthistle (Centaurea solstitialis L.; Asteraceae), and assessed the extent to which the introduction of a weed native to Eurasia into several non-native world regions was paralleled by the spread of cultural uses from its native range. We found that the species was rich in pharmaceutically active compounds and that the species had been traditionally used for medicinal purposes, as raw material, and as food. However, ethnobotanical uses were reported almost exclusively in its native range, with no uses described for the non-native range, apart from honey production in California, Argentina, and Australia. Our study exemplifies how, when plant introductions are not paralleled synchronously by significant human migrations, cultural adoption can be extremely slow, even within the native range of the species. Invasive species can provide real-time insights into the cultural processes by which humans learn to use plants. This case study highlights how biological invasions and cultural expansions can be subjected to different constraints.

Indigenous Land-Based Approaches to Well-Being: The Niska (Goose) Harvesting Program in Subarctic Ontario, Canada

Historically, goose harvesting provided a source of culturally significant, safe, and nutritious food for the Omushkego Cree of subarctic Ontario, Canada. Disruptions stemming from colonization and climate change have led to a decrease in harvesting, resulting in higher rates of food insecurity. The aim of the Niska program was to reconnect Elders and youth to revitalize goose harvesting activities and associated Indigenous knowledge within the community. The program and evaluation were built using a two-eyed seeing (Etuaptmumk) and community-based participatory research approach. Salivary cortisol, a biomedical measure of stress, was collected before (n = 13) and after (n = 13) participation in the spring harvest. Likewise, cortisol samples were collected before (n = 12) and after (n = 12) the summer harvest. Photovoice and semi-directed interviews were employed after the spring (n = 13) and summer (n = 12) harvests to identify key elements of well-being from an Indigenous perspective. The changes observed in cortisol levels for the spring (p = 0.782) and summer (p = 0.395) harvests were not statistically significant. However, there was a noteworthy increase in the subjective well-being observed through the qualitative measures (semi-directed interviews and photovoice), highlighting the importance of using multiple perspectives when assessing well-being, especially in Indigenous peoples. Future programs should incorporate multiple perspectives when addressing complex environmental and health issues, such as food security and environmental conservation, especially in Indigenous homelands worldwide.

Exploring metapopulation-scale suppression alternatives for a global invader in a river network experiencing climate change

Invasive species can dramatically alter ecosystems, but eradication is difficult, and suppression is expensive once they are established. Uncertainties in the potential for expansion and impacts by an invader can lead to delayed and inadequate suppression, allowing for establishment. Metapopulation viability models can aid in planning strategies to improve responses to invaders and lessen invasive species' impacts, which may be particularly important under climate change. We used a spatially explicit metapopulation viability model to explore suppression strategies for ecologically damaging invasive brown trout (Salmo trutta), established in the Colorado River and a tributary in Grand Canyon National Park. Our goals were to estimate the effectiveness of strategies targeting different life stages and subpopulations within a metapopulation; quantify the effectiveness of a rapid response to a new invasion relative to delaying action until establishment; and estimate whether future hydrology and temperature regimes related to climate change and reservoir management affect metapopulation viability and alter the optimal management response. Our models included scenarios targeting different life stages with spatially varying intensities of electrofishing, redd destruction, incentivized angler harvest, piscicides, and a weir. Quasi-extinction (QE) was obtainable only with metapopulation-wide suppression targeting multiple life stages. Brown trout population growth rates were most sensitive to changes in age 0 and large adult mortality. The duration of suppression needed to reach QE for a large established subpopulation was 12 years compared with 4 with a rapid response to a new invasion. Isolated subpopulations were vulnerable to suppression; however, connected tributary subpopulations enhanced metapopulation persistence by serving as climate refuges. Water shortages driving changes in reservoir storage and subsequent warming would cause brown trout declines, but metapopulation QE was achieved only through refocusing and increasing suppression. Our modeling approach improves understanding of invasive brown trout metapopulation dynamics, which could lead to more focused and effective invasive species suppression strategies and, ultimately, maintenance of populations of endemic fishes.

Meridionalization as a Possible Resource for Fisheries: The Case Study of Caranx rhonchus Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, 1817, in Southern Italian Waters

Climate change affects the shift range distribution of species, especially among mobile species, and this phenomenon can alter ecosystems and impacts human activities. Fishing is an anthropic activity that undergoes the effect not only of the introduction and increase of non-native species but also of native thermophilic ones. Some of these species can become a commercially exploitable resource. However, this information is often obscured by the negative effects these species can cause to the environment. We investigated how the thermophilic species Caranx rhonchus, neglected in Italy, could become a relevant resource. We studied the nutritional profile and the presence of heavy metal contamination and compared these traits with those of a similar common Mediterranean species, namely Trachurus trachurus. The proximate composition was determined following the AOAC procedure, while the fatty acid profile was determined by GC/MS, and the mineral component was obtained by mass spectrometer (ICP-MS). Caranx rhonchus is a nutritionally good species, although it is little consumed and exploited. Increasing the market supply with new commercially exploitable emerging species would benefit local communities and the environment. Therefore, it is necessary to investigate how a shift of the range caused by climate change can provide benefits within the human dimension.

Investigating the Acceptance of a New Bivalve Product in the Greek Shellfish Market: The Non-Indigenous Pearl Oyster Pinctada imbricata radiata

Greece exhibits the lowest seafood per capita consumption amongst European Mediterranean countries, and the investigation of consumer attitudes to new seafood products would bridge the gap among producers and consumers by promoting the vertical integration of the supply chain. However, limited information exists about consumer preferences for bivalves in the Mediterranean and for wild bivalves in particular. The present study aims to investigate, for the first time, consumers’ attitudes towards the purchase and consumption of bivalves, and more specifically, towards the edible pearl oyster Pinctada imbricata radiata, in the Greek shellfish market. Adult participants from the entire country completed a questionnaire covering the basic marketing aspects of bivalve and pearl oyster consumption, such as choice, purchase, reasons for consuming bivalves, confidence in product’s hygiene certification, media influence, etc. Data analysis included uni- and multi-variate statistics to examine the possible relations between the consumers’ demographics and socio-economic characteristics, and bivalve marketing aspects. Results showed that the majority of Greek consumers chooses traditional shellfish shops for purchasing pearl oysters, prefers a certification of quality, and trusts the confirmation provided by the veterinary authorities. Consumers’ attitudes vary considerably according to their demographics and socio-economic characteristics. Multivariate models revealed that the married, highly educated consumers that live in urban places were more reluctant to try new shellfish products and to accept an innovative way of market supply. The results reflect the positive attitude of Greek consumers towards the consumption of pearl oyster, a fact that would be helpful for decision makers in the planning of production, which in turn would promote bivalve consumption in the Greek shellfish market.

The Role of Citizen Science in the Research and Management of Invasive Lionfish across the Western Atlantic

Managing invasive Indo-Pacific lionfish (Pterois volitans and P. miles) in the Western Atlantic Ocean is beyond the capacity of natural resource organizations alone. In response, organizations have mobilized members of the public and citizen scientists to help. We used a structured survey to assess the activities and perceptions of 71 organizations that engage the public and citizen scientists in lionfish research and management throughout the invaded range of the Western Atlantic. Five case studies were also conducted that exemplified varied and multi-pronged approaches to engagement of the public and citizen scientists in lionfish control, monitoring, and knowledge-sharing. The public has been engaged to some extent in every approach, but organizations most frequently indicated engaging members of the public in raising awareness, promoting consumption, organized culling/removal, tournaments, and data collection. Sixty-five percent of organizations surveyed engaged the public in data collection, and data collection was ranked as the scientific research activity in which the public is most often involved. Most organizations indicated their data has contributed to scientific publications, management, and government agency research and/or policy. Collectively these findings demonstrate the conservation value of citizen scientists to assist organizational efforts to control, manage, and study a large-scale marine invasion.

Fishery reforms for the management of non-indigenous species

Marine ecosystems are undergoing major transformations due to the establishment and spread of Non-Indigenous Species (NIS). Some of these organisms have adverse effects, for example by reducing biodiversity and causing ecosystem shifts. Others have upsides, such as benefits to fisheries or replacing lost ecological functions and strengthening biogenic complexity. Stopping the spread of NIS is virtually impossible and so the societal challenge is how to limit the socioeconomic, health, and ecological risks, and sustainably exploit the benefits provided by these organisms. We propose a move away from the notion that NIS have only negative effects, and suggest a turn towards an Ecosystem-Based Fishery Management approach for NIS (EBFM-NIS) in the Mediterranean Sea, the world's most invaded marine region. A structured, iterative, and adaptive framework that considers the range of costs and benefits to ecosystems, ecosystem services, and fisheries is set out to determine whether NIS stocks should be managed using sustainable or unsustainable exploitation. We propose fishery reforms such as multiannual plans, annual catch limits, technical measures for sustainable exploitation, and legitimization of unlimited fishing of selected NIS and introduction of a radical new license for NIS fishing for unsustainable exploitation. Depending on local conditions, investment strategies can be included within the EBFM-NIS framework to protect/enhance natural assets to improve ecosystem resilience against NIS, as well as fishery assets to improve the performance of NIS fisheries. Examples of the former include the enhancement of Marine Protected Areas, harvesting of invasive NIS within MPAs, and protection of overfished predators and key species. Examples of the latter include market promotion and valorisation of NIS products, development of novel NIS products, and innovative/alternative NIS fishing such as fishery-related tourism ('pescatourism'). The application of the suggested EBFM-NIS would create jobs, protect and enhance ecosystem services, and help to meet the United Nations Sustainable Development Goal 14: Conserve and sustainably use the oceans, seas, and marine resources for sustainable development.

People's Knowledge and Risk Perceptions of Invasive Plants in Metro Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada

Effective management of invasive plants conserves biodiversity values, reduces economic costs, and minimizes negative impacts on human health. Fostering people's awareness of invasive plants is one of the most cost-effective approaches in preventing the spread and introduction of invasive plants. Therefore, this study aims to understand (1) people's knowledge and risk perceptions, (2) associations between risk perceptions and demographics, and (3) people's willingness to support current management strategies in the Metro Vancouver region, British Columbia, Canada. An online survey was carried out and received 356 responses across the region. We found that people's knowledge and risk perceptions of invasive plants were ecologically oriented. Older respondents perceived higher risks of invasive plants. Among respondents of the same age, annual income higher than $50,000 was associated with higher levels of risk perception. Respondents who had professional and/or recreational group memberships perceived higher economic risks. Respondents highly supported activities that they could take part in directly, such as community invasive pulls and native species planting. Overall, our findings aid managers in allocating appropriate funding or tailoring outreach efforts to different aspects of invasive plants as well as groups/communities where people's knowledge and risk perceptions of invasive plants are low.

Reciprocal human-natural system feedback loops within the invasion process

Biological invasions are inextricably linked to how people collect, move, interact with and perceive non-native species. However, invasion frameworks generally do not consider reciprocal interactions between non-native species and people. Non-native species can shape human actions via beneficial or detrimental ecological and socioeconomic effects and people, in turn, shape invasions through their movements, behaviour and how they respond to the collection, transport, introduction and spread of non-natives. The feedbacks that stem from this ‘coupled human and natural system’ (CHANS) could therefore play a key role in mitigating (i.e. negative feedback loops) or exacerbating (i.e. positive feedback loops) ongoing and future invasions. We posit that the invasion process could be subdivided into three CHANS that span from the source region from which non-natives originate to the recipient region in which they establish and spread. We also provide specific examples of feedback loops that occur within each CHANS that have either reduced or facilitated new introductions and spread of established non-native species. In so doing, we add to exisiting invasion frameworks to generate new hypotheses about human-based drivers of biological invasions and further efforts to determine how ecological outcomes feed back into human actions.

Geographic-Scale Harvest Program to Promote Invasivorism of Bigheaded Carps

Invasive bigheaded carps, genus Hypophthalmichthys, are spreading throughout the Mississippi River basin. To explore the efficacy of a consumer-based market (i.e., invasivorism) to manage them, we developed a conceptual model and evaluated three harvest approaches—direct contracted removal, volume-based incentives (“fisher-side” control), and set-quota harvest (“market-side” control). We quantified the efficacy of these approaches and potential population impact in the Illinois River. Contracted removal was effective for suppressing small populations at the edge of the range but cannot support a market. “Fisher-side” removals totaled 225,372 kg in one year. However, participation was low, perhaps due to reporting requirements for fishers. The “market-side”, set-quota approach removed >1.3 million kg of bigheaded carp in less than 6 months. Larger, older fish were disproportionately harvested, which may hinder the ability to suppress population growth. Total density declined in one river reach, and harvest may reduce upstream movement toward the invasion fronts. With sufficient market demand, harvest may control bigheaded carp. However, lack of processing infrastructure and supply chain bottlenecks could constrain harvest, particularly at low commodity prices. Given the geographical scale of this invasion and complicated harvest logistics, concerns about economic dependence on invasivorism that encourage stock enhancement are likely unmerited.

Using online questionnaires to assess marine bio-invasions: A demonstration with recreational fishers and the Atlantic blue crab Callinectes sapidus (Rathbun, 1986) along three Mediterranean countries

Marine bioinvasions require integrating monitoring tools with other complementary strategies. In this study, we collected information about the invasive alien crab Callinectes sapidus in Italy, Croatia and Montenegro, by means of online questionnaires administered to recreational fishers (n = 797). Our records matched the current distribution of the species: C. sapidus resulted far more common in the Adriatic/Ionian than in the Tyrrhenian/Ligurian sector. Most respondents rated the species as 'occasional' or 'rare'. Moreover, the more C. sapidus was considered to be abundant, the more fishers tended to perceive it as a negative disturbance over fisheries and the environment. Our findings suggest that C. sapidus is more common than previously thought in most of the study area, and it could have reached the levels of a true invasions in the south-eastern Adriatic Sea. This experience demonstrates that online questionnaires can be appropriate tools to effectively engage stakeholders in alien species monitoring.

Leveraging public harvest to reduce invasive hybridization in Yellowstone National Park: field identification and harvest of cutthroat × rainbow trout hybrids

Leveraging public harvest can be a cost-effective invasive species management tool, but target taxa must be correctly identified and removed at rates that achieve biological objectives. We explored the potential role of recreational anglers to curtail expanding hybridization between invasive rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss; RT) and native Yellowstone cutthroat trout (O. clarkii bouvieri; YCT) in the Lamar River watershed in Yellowstone National Park. We sought to (1) develop a hybrid identification key that could be used by anglers and (2) estimate angler participation, catch, and potential exploitation rates. We assessed seven morphological features of trout in the field (n = 251, 15 locations) and collected fin clips to estimate RT ancestry proportion using genetic analysis. An identification key was built using recursive partitioning to objectively distinguish YCT from RT and hybrids. A single-choice dichotomous key (white pelvic fin tip present/absent) correctly classified 93% of fish as native (YCT) or containing RT ancestry (RT or hybrid). Success increased to 97% when a second criterion was added (head spot count ≥ 6). Using angler surveys (2013–2017), we estimated that 10,000 anglers catch 50,000 trout annually. In a popular road-accessible area, most trout are probably caught and released ~ 5 times each year. The combination of high angler participation, substantial annual catch, and an accurate and easy to use identification method indicate that leveraging public harvest is a promising management tool. Invasive hybridization is a global conservation issue threatening many native taxa; this case study highlights some factors for resource managers to consider prior to implementing public harvest regulations and the benefits of standardized keys to distinguish hybrids in the field.

Human adaptation to invasive species: A conceptual framework based on a case study metasynthesis

Species invasions are a major driver of ecological change, are very difficult to control or reverse, and will increase with climate change and global trade. Invasion sciences consider how species in invaded environments adapt, but neither scientists nor policy makers consider human adaptation to invasive species and how this affects ecosystems and well-being. To address this, a framework conceptualising autochthonous human adaptation to invasions was developed based on the Human Adaptation to Biodiversity Change framework and a case study metasynthesis. Results show that adaptation occurs within different spheres of human activity and organisation at different social-ecological scales; responses have feedbacks within and across these spheres. Adaptation to invasives and other drivers is a set of highly contextual, complex, non-linear responses that make up pathways pursued over time. Most invasive species management and adaptation occurs 'from below,' and policies and planned control efforts should support autochthonous adaptation, rather than undermining it.

Management priorities for marine invasive species

Managing invasive alien species is particularly challenging in the ocean mainly because marine ecosystems are highly connected across broad spatial scales. Eradication of marine invasive species has only been achieved when species were detected early, and management responded rapidly. Generalized approaches, transferable across marine regions, for prioritizing actions to control invasive populations are currently lacking. Here, expert knowledge was elicited to prioritize 11 management actions for controlling 12 model species, distinguished by differences in dispersion capacity, distribution in the area to be managed, and taxonomic identity. Each action was assessed using five criteria (effectiveness, feasibility, acceptability, impacts on native communities, and cost), which were combined in an 'applicability' metric. Raising public awareness and encouraging the commercial use of invasive species were highly prioritized, whereas biological control actions were considered the least applicable. Our findings can guide rapid decision-making on prioritizing management options for the control of invasive species especially at early stages of invasion, when reducing managers' response time is critical.

Protecting endemic species from African Catfish invasion when community behavioral responses get in the way

Exotic invasive fish species, when introduced into pristine natural environments, threaten the survival of many endemic species. Management challenges associated with controlling their further spread and protecting endemic species can be exacerbated when the same exotic fish species also provide gastronomical benefits to humans. Local human populations can switch their consumption preferences toward the exotic fish species, leading to an increase in their spread rate and control costs. Using the example of the African Catfish invasion in a freshwater lake, we develop a bioeconomic model of its optimal control, which also incorporates the behavioral challenges arising from a gastronomical preference for the exotic fish species. In particular, the cost of catfish control increases with its consumption demand, which, through altering the inter-species dynamics, threatens the survival of endemic fish species. The manager has at his disposal the market and non-market values of the endemic fish species to invest toward their preservation efforts. The non-market value of the endemic species is further modeled as endogenous to the community's preference switching. Results suggest that a late detection of the exotic fish species in freshwater bodies can increase their control costs enough to make their eradication challenging, especially when the manager faces financial resource constraints. The presence of behavioral effects adds to this challenge - directly, through increasing the control costs, and indirectly, through lowering the non-market value of the endemic fish species.

Assessment of legacy and emerging contaminants in an introduced catfish and implications for the fishery

Since introduction into the Chesapeake Bay watershed in the 1970s, blue catfish (Ictalurus furcatus) populations have increased, impacting native species. One strategy suggested to limit their growing numbers is to expand the existing commercial fishery. However, the promotion of human consumption of this large, omnivorous fish may increase exposure to contaminants of concern (COC). However, there are few published data on contaminants in blue catfish. To evaluate this possibility, we measured COC (PCBs, PBDEs, OCs, Hg) in individual fillets and compared levels to established consumption advisory limits. James River (near Richmond, Virginia) and Upper Potomac River (downstream of Washington DC) fish exhibited higher burdens of most COC than those from the lower James and rural Rappahannock rivers. Fish sex and δ¹⁵N values (surrogate for trophic position) did not correlate with COC concentrations. Potomac River fish exhibited greatest δ¹⁵N, perhaps related to local wastewater inputs. Despite differences in human population densities among watersheds, fish mercury (Hg) levels were similar. Most fillets surpassed US EPA advisory limits for unrestricted consumption (> 16 meals/month) for Hg and PCBs. Hg and PCB advisories in the region typically restrict consumption to two 220 g meals/month. Hence, individuals who rely on fish for a large portion of their diet may be exposed to unacceptable Hg and PCB concentrations. COC levels typically increased with fish length; in particular, fish > 550 mm often exceeded unrestricted consumption limits for chlordanes and DDTs. PBDEs, pentachloroanisole, hexachlorobenzene, and mirex levels were generally below established advisories. However, because fish advisories are based on the expected consequences from single contaminants and a single or limited number of toxicological endpoints, consumers face greater risks due to cumulative effects from all coincident COCs, as well as additional exposure pathways, such as other food and air. The additional data on contaminant levels reported here will increase the accuracy of forecasted risks. However, it also illustrates the complexity in communicating the risks from multi-contaminant exposure.

The Atlantic blue crab Callinectes sapidus in southern European coastal waters: Distribution, impact and prospective invasion management strategies

The native distribution of the blue crab Callinectes sapidus in the western Atlantic extends from Nova Scotia to Argentina. Introduced to Europe at the beginning of the 20th century, it is currently recorded almost ubiquitously in the Mediterranean and in the Black Sea. An overview of the occurrence, abundance, and ecological impact of the species in southern European waters is provided; additionally, we present a pragmatic assessment of its management scenarios, explicitly considering the dual nature of C. sapidus as both an invasive species and a fishery resource. We emphasise that the ongoing expansion of C. sapidus in the region may represent a stimulating challenge for the identification and implementation of future strategies in the management of invasive crustaceans. The impact of the invader could be converted into an enhancement of the services delivered by southern European coastal ecosystems, while mitigation costs could be transformed into profits for local populations.

The Atlantic blue crab Callinectes sapidus in southern European coastal waters: Distribution, impact and prospective invasion management strategies

The native distribution of the blue crab Callinectes sapidus in the western Atlantic extends from Nova Scotia to Argentina. Introduced to Europe at the beginning of the 20th century, it is currently recorded almost ubiquitously in the Mediterranean and in the Black Sea. An overview of the occurrence, abundance, and ecological impact of the species in southern European waters is provided; additionally, we present a pragmatic assessment of its management scenarios, explicitly considering the dual nature of C. sapidus as both an invasive species and a fishery resource. We emphasise that the ongoing expansion of C. sapidus in the region may represent a stimulating challenge for the identification and implementation of future strategies in the management of invasive crustaceans. The impact of the invader could be converted into an enhancement of the services delivered by southern European coastal ecosystems, while mitigation costs could be transformed into profits for local populations.

Control Strategy Scenarios for the Alien Lionfish Pterois volitans in Chinchorro Bank (Mexican Caribbean): Based on Semi-Quantitative Loop Analysis

Ecological and eco-social network models were constructed with different levels of complexity in order to represent and evaluate management strategies for controlling the alien species Pterois volitans in Chinchorro bank (Mexican Caribbean). Levins´s loop analysis was used as a methodological framework for assessing the local stability (considered as a component of sustainability) of the modeled management interventions represented by various scenarios. The results provided by models of different complexity (models 1 through 4) showed that a reduction of coral species cover would drive the system to unstable states. In the absence of the alien lionfish, the simultaneous fishing of large benthic epifaunal species, adult herbivorous fish and adult carnivorous fish could be sustainable only if the coral species present high levels of cover (models 2 and 3). Once the lionfish is added to the simulations (models 4 and 5), the analysis suggests that although the exploitation or removal of lionfish from shallow waters may be locally stable, it remains necessary to implement additional and concurrent human interventions that increase the holistic sustainability of the control strategy. The supplementary interventions would require the implementation of programs for: (1) the restoration of corals for increasing their cover, (2) the exploitation or removal of lionfish from deeper waters (decreasing the chance of source/sink meta-population dynamics) and (3) the implementation of bans and re-stocking programs for carnivorous fishes (such as grouper) that increase the predation and competition pressure on lionfish (i.e. biological control). An effective control management for the alien lionfish at Chinchorro bank should not be optimized for a single action plan: instead, we should investigate the concurrent implementation of multiple strategies.