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Martinson EO, Chen K, Valzania L, Brown MR, Strand MR. Insulin-like peptide 3 stimulates hemocytes to proliferate in anautogenous and facultatively autogenous mosquitoes. J Exp Biol 2022; 225:274275. [PMID: 35129195 PMCID: PMC8976944 DOI: 10.1242/jeb.243460] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/06/2021] [Accepted: 01/31/2022] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Most mosquito species are anautogenous, which means they must blood feed on a vertebrate host to produce eggs, while a few are autogenous and can produce eggs without blood feeding. Egg formation is best understood in the anautogenous mosquito Aedes aegypti, where insulin-like peptides (ILPs), ovary ecdysteroidogenic hormone (OEH) and 20-hydroxyecdysone (20E) interact to regulate gonadotrophic cycles. Circulating hemocytes also approximately double in abundance in conjunction with a gonadotrophic cycle, but the factors responsible for stimulating this increase remain unclear. Focusing on Ae. aegypti, we determined that hemocyte abundance similarly increased in intact blood-fed females and decapitated blood-fed females that were injected with ILP3, whereas OEH, 20E or heat-killed bacteria had no stimulatory activity. ILP3 upregulated insulin-insulin growth factor signaling in hemocytes, but few genes - including almost no transcripts for immune factors - were differentially expressed. ILP3 also stimulated circulating hemocytes to increase in two other anautogenous (Anopheles gambiae and Culex quinquefasciatus) and two facultatively autogenous mosquitoes (Aedes atropalpus and Culex pipiens molestus), but had no stimulatory activity in the obligately autogenous mosquito Toxorhynchites amboinensis. Altogether, our results identify ILPs as the primary regulators of hemocyte proliferation in association with egg formation, but also suggest this response has been lost in the evolution of obligate autogeny.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ellen O Martinson
- Department of Entomology, University of Georgia, Athens, GA 30602, USA
| | - Kangkang Chen
- Department of Entomology, University of Georgia, Athens, GA 30602, USA
| | - Luca Valzania
- Department of Entomology, University of Georgia, Athens, GA 30602, USA
| | - Mark R Brown
- Department of Entomology, University of Georgia, Athens, GA 30602, USA
| | - Michael R Strand
- Department of Entomology, University of Georgia, Athens, GA 30602, USA
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Differential Gene Expression in the Heads of Behaviorally Divergent Culex pipiens Mosquitoes. INSECTS 2021; 12:insects12030271. [PMID: 33806861 PMCID: PMC8005152 DOI: 10.3390/insects12030271] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/02/2021] [Accepted: 03/15/2021] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Host preferences of Cx. pipiens, a bridge vector for West Nile virus to humans, have the potential to drive pathogen transmission dynamics. Yet much remains unknown about the extent of variation in these preferences and their molecular basis. We conducted host choice assays in a laboratory setting to quantify multi-day human and avian landing rates for Cx. pipiens females. Assayed populations originated from five above-ground and three below-ground breeding and overwintering habitats. All three below-ground populations were biased toward human landings, with rates of human landing ranging from 69-85%. Of the five above-ground populations, four had avian landing rates of >80%, while one landed on the avian host only 44% of the time. Overall response rates and willingness to alternate landing on the human and avian hosts across multiple days of testing also varied by population. For one human- and one avian-preferring population, we examined patterns of differential expression and splice site variation at genes expressed in female heads. We also compared gene expression and splice site variation within human-seeking females in either gravid or host-seeking physiological states to identify genes that may regulate blood feeding behaviors. Overall, we identified genes with metabolic and regulatory function that were differentially expressed in our comparison of gravid and host-seeking females. Differentially expressed genes in our comparison of avian- and human-seeking females were enriched for those involved in sensory perception. We conclude with a discussion of specific sensory genes and their potential influence on the divergent behaviors of avian- and human-seeking Cx. pipiens.
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Nyasembe VO, Tchouassi DP, Muturi MN, Pirk CWW, Sole CL, Torto B. Plant nutrient quality impacts survival and reproductive fitness of the dengue vector Aedes aegypti. Parasit Vectors 2021; 14:4. [PMID: 33397448 PMCID: PMC7783993 DOI: 10.1186/s13071-020-04519-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/22/2020] [Accepted: 12/04/2020] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND In a recent study using DNA barcoding, we identified the plants fed upon by four Afro-tropical mosquito species that vector dengue, malaria, and Rift Valley fever. Herein, we have expanded on this study by investigating the role of three of the plants, Pithecellobium dulce (Fabaceae), Leonotis nepetifolia (Lamiaceae), and Opuntia ficus-indica (Cactaceae), on the survival, fecundity, and egg viability of the dengue vector Aedes aegypti. METHODS We tested these effects using females that received (i) an initial three rations of blood meals and (ii) no blood meal at all. Two controls were included: age-matched females fed on glucose solution with or without an initial blood meal and those fed exclusively on blood meals. Data were collected daily over a 30-day period. The amino acid contents of Ae. aegypti guts and their respective diets were detected by coupled liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry. RESULTS Females fed on P. dulce and an exclusively blood meal diet had a shorter survival than those fed on glucose. On the other hand, females fed on L. nepetifolia survived longer than those fed exclusively on blood meals, whereas those fed on O. ficus-indica had the shortest survival time. With an initial blood meal, females fed on L. nepetifolia laid 1.6-fold more eggs while those fed on the other diets laid fewer eggs compared to those fed exclusively on blood meals. Hatching rates of the eggs laid varied with the diet. Mass spectroscopic analysis of gut contents of mosquitoes exposed to the different diets showed qualitative and quantitative differences in their amino acid levels. CONCLUSION Our findings highlight the central role of plant nutrients in the reproductive fitness of dengue vectors, which may impact their disease transmission potential.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vincent Odhiambo Nyasembe
- International Centre of Insect Physiology and Ecology (Icipe), Nairobi, Kenya. .,Department of Zoology and Entomology, University of Pretoria, Hatfield, South Africa.
| | | | - Martha Njeri Muturi
- Department of Bioscience, Kenya Medical Research Institute-Wellcome Trust, Kilifi, Kenya
| | - Christian W W Pirk
- Department of Zoology and Entomology, University of Pretoria, Hatfield, South Africa
| | - Catherine L Sole
- Department of Zoology and Entomology, University of Pretoria, Hatfield, South Africa
| | - Baldwyn Torto
- International Centre of Insect Physiology and Ecology (Icipe), Nairobi, Kenya.,Department of Zoology and Entomology, University of Pretoria, Hatfield, South Africa
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Gao Q, Su F, Zhou YB, Chu W, Cao H, Song LL, Zhou JJ, Leng PE. Autogeny, Fecundity, and Other Life History Traits of Culex pipiens molestus (Diptera: Culicidae) in Shanghai, China. JOURNAL OF MEDICAL ENTOMOLOGY 2019; 56:656-664. [PMID: 30605531 DOI: 10.1093/jme/tjy228] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/02/2018] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Culex pipiens molestus Forskål is common in subterranean and aboveground environments in Shanghai, China. However, little is known about its autogeny, fecundity, and other life history traits. In this study, Cx. p. molestus larvae were collected from four different types of underground parking lots and artificially maintained, without blood feeding, in a laboratory. Life history traits parameters were recorded from the F0 to F9 generation. Culex pipiens molestus from Shanghai can autogenously persist for at least 10 generations, and some females can develop more than one egg batch without blood feeding (oviposition rate in Lot C was >100% in some generations). The average number of eggs per raft produced autogenously ranged from 36.94 to 42.19. The average generation time (GT) ranged from 20.06 to 21.30 d, and the pre-oviposition time (POT) ranged from 2.17 to 12.68 d among the generations. Culex pipiens molestus from the four groups had different autogeny, fecundity, and longevity patterns. This variability may result from genetic polymorphism caused by co-occurrence with other Culex pipiens subspecies (Diptera: Culicidae).
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Affiliation(s)
- Qiang Gao
- Department of Vectors Control, Shanghai Huangpu Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Shanghai, People's Republic of China
| | - Fei Su
- Department of Vectors Control, Shanghai Huangpu Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Shanghai, People's Republic of China
| | - Yi-Bin Zhou
- Department of Vectors Control, Shanghai Municipal Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Shanghai, People's Republic of China
| | - Wei Chu
- Department of Vectors Control, Shanghai Huangpu Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Shanghai, People's Republic of China
| | - Hui Cao
- Department of Vectors Control, Shanghai Huangpu Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Shanghai, People's Republic of China
| | - Li-Li Song
- Department of Vectors Control, Shanghai Huangpu Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Shanghai, People's Republic of China
| | - Jian-Jun Zhou
- Department of Vectors Control, Shanghai Huangpu Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Shanghai, People's Republic of China
| | - Pei-En Leng
- Department of Vectors Control, Shanghai Municipal Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Shanghai, People's Republic of China
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Kim S, Trocke S, Sim C. Comparative studies of stenogamous behaviour in the mosquito Culex pipiens complex. MEDICAL AND VETERINARY ENTOMOLOGY 2018; 32:427-435. [PMID: 29856079 DOI: 10.1111/mve.12309] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/11/2017] [Revised: 04/09/2018] [Accepted: 04/15/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
Understanding the processes of reproductive behaviour in mosquitoes is crucial for improving mating competitiveness and mating specificity for sterile insect release programmes. The Culex pipiens (Linneaus) (Diptera: Culicidae) forms pipiens and molestus (Forskål), two biotypes of the Cx. pipiens complex, are vectors for West Nile virus, St Louis encephalitis virus and lymphatic filariases. Hybridization of these biotypes is known to occur in nature, although form pipiens mates above ground in large spaces (eurygamy) and form molestus preferentially mates in small spaces (stenogamy) such as sewage tunnels. Hybridization may allow gene flow of biotype-specific characteristics that are crucial in the disease transmission cycle. The present study examined and compared mating behaviours, insemination rates, fecundity and fertility in parental and F1 hybrids between Cx. pipiens f. pipiens and Cx. pipiens f. molestus in conditions of stenogamy. Unique mating behaviour sequences were identified in Cx. pipiens f. molestus, including tapping, mounting, co-flying and copulation. Despite the considerably high insemination rates in hybrid crosses, fertility and fecundity rates were varied. This observation could suggest reproductive isolation in the hybrid zone. The study also documents a failure of heterospecific males to produce fertile eggs in Cx. pipiens f. pipiens females, which may be attributable to gametic incompatibilities and may represent an additional barrier to gene exchange.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Kim
- Department of Biology, Baylor University, Waco, TX, U.S.A
| | - S Trocke
- Department of Biology, Baylor University, Waco, TX, U.S.A
| | - C Sim
- Department of Biology, Baylor University, Waco, TX, U.S.A
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The Role of Culex pipiens L. (Diptera: Culicidae) in Virus Transmission in Europe. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2018; 15:ijerph15020389. [PMID: 29473903 PMCID: PMC5858458 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph15020389] [Citation(s) in RCA: 80] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/05/2018] [Revised: 02/15/2018] [Accepted: 02/16/2018] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Over the past three decades, a range of mosquito-borne viruses that threaten public and veterinary health have emerged or re-emerged in Europe. Mosquito surveillance activities have highlighted the Culex pipiens species complex as being critical for the maintenance of a number of these viruses. This species complex contains morphologically similar forms that exhibit variation in phenotypes that can influence the probability of virus transmission. Critical amongst these is the choice of host on which to feed, with different forms showing different feeding preferences. This influences the ability of the mosquito to vector viruses and facilitate transmission of viruses to humans and domestic animals. Biases towards blood-feeding on avian or mammalian hosts have been demonstrated for different Cx. pipiens ecoforms and emerging evidence of hybrid populations across Europe adds another level of complexity to virus transmission. A range of molecular methods based on DNA have been developed to enable discrimination between morphologically indistinguishable forms, although this remains an active area of research. This review provides a comprehensive overview of developments in the understanding of the ecology, behaviour and genetics of Cx. pipiens in Europe, and how this influences arbovirus transmission.
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Beji M, Rhim A, Roiz D, Bouattour A. Ecophysiological characterization and molecular differentiation of Culex pipiens forms (Diptera: Culicidae) in Tunisia. Parasit Vectors 2017; 10:327. [PMID: 28693560 PMCID: PMC5504560 DOI: 10.1186/s13071-017-2265-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/16/2017] [Accepted: 06/27/2017] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Background The Culex pipiens complex (Diptera: Culicidae) includes the most widespread mosquito species in the world. Members of this complex are the primary enzootic and epidemic vectors of the West Nile virus (genus Flavivirus) in several countries. The two recognized forms of Cx. pipiens (Linnaeus, 1758) - pipiens and molestus- exhibit behavioral and physiological differences. Natural populations of Cx. pipiens were investigated in several sites in Tunisia to evaluate the ecophysiological and molecular characteristics of their forms. Results The analysis showed the sympatric presence of Cx. pipiens forms and hybrids in all studied sites. Of all the tested larvae of Cx. pipiens, 33.5% were identified as pipiens, 30.8% were identified as molestus, and 35.6% were identified as hybrids. The molestus and hybrid forms were positively correlated with urban habitats and belowground sites while the pipiens form was positively correlated with rural habitats and aboveground sites. Autogeny was expressed in all types of habitats and breeding sites. By contrast with the microsatellite CQ11, the two molecular markers, ace-2 and cytb, did not allow differentiation between the Cx. pipiens forms. Conclusions Our study shows the ubiquitous distribution and the plasticity of the different forms of Cx. pipiens in a wide range of ecological conditions. It suggests that the behavioral traits assigned to the forms of Cx. pipiens seem to be more flexible than previously assumed. Our analysis also proves that the microsatellite CQ11 remains an efficient tool for distinguishing between Cx. pipiens forms. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s13071-017-2265-7) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marwa Beji
- Université Tunis El Manar, Institut Pasteur de Tunis, Laboratoire d'Epidémiologie et de Microbiologie Vétérinaire LR11IPT03, Service d'Entomologie Médicale, 1002, Tunis-Belvédère, Tunisia
| | - Adel Rhim
- Université Tunis El Manar, Institut Pasteur de Tunis, Laboratoire d'Epidémiologie et de Microbiologie Vétérinaire LR11IPT03, Service d'Entomologie Médicale, 1002, Tunis-Belvédère, Tunisia
| | - David Roiz
- Infectious Diseases and Vectors: Ecology, Genetics, Evolution and Control, IRD (Institut de Recherche pour le Développement), Montpellier, France
| | - Ali Bouattour
- Université Tunis El Manar, Institut Pasteur de Tunis, Laboratoire d'Epidémiologie et de Microbiologie Vétérinaire LR11IPT03, Service d'Entomologie Médicale, 1002, Tunis-Belvédère, Tunisia.
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Gomes B, Wilding CS, Weetman D, Sousa CA, Novo MT, Savage HM, Almeida APG, Pinto J, Donnelly MJ. Limited genomic divergence between intraspecific forms of Culex pipiens under different ecological pressures. BMC Evol Biol 2015; 15:197. [PMID: 26377220 PMCID: PMC4573496 DOI: 10.1186/s12862-015-0477-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2015] [Accepted: 09/03/2015] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Divergent selection can be a major driver of ecological speciation. In insects of medical importance, understanding the speciation process is both of academic interest and public health importance. In the West Nile virus vector Culex pipiens, intraspecific pipiens and molestus forms vary in ecological and physiological traits. Populations of each form appear to share recent common ancestry but patterns of genetic differentiation across the genome remain unknown. Here, we undertook an AFLP genome scan on samples collected from both sympatric and allopatric populations from Europe and the USA to quantify the extent of genomic differentiation between the two forms. Results The forms were clearly differentiated but each exhibited major population sub-structuring between continents. Divergence between pipiens and molestus forms from USA was higher than in both inter- and intra-continental comparisons with European samples. The proportion of outlier loci between pipiens and molestus (≈3 %) was low but consistent in both continents, and similar to those observed between sibling species of other mosquito species which exhibit contemporary gene flow. Only two of the outlier loci were shared between inter-form comparisons made within Europe and USA. Conclusion This study supports the molestus and pipiens status as distinct evolutionary entities with low genomic divergence. The low number of shared divergent loci between continents suggests a relatively limited number of genomic regions determining key typological traits likely to be driving incipient speciation and/or adaptation of molestus to anthropogenic habitats. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12862-015-0477-z) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bruno Gomes
- Global Health & Tropical Medicine, Instituto de Higiene e Medicina Tropical, Universidade Nova de Lisboa, Rua da Junqueira 100, 1349-008, Lisbon, Portugal. .,Department of Vector Biology, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Pembroke Place, Liverpool, L3 5QA, UK.
| | - Craig S Wilding
- Department of Vector Biology, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Pembroke Place, Liverpool, L3 5QA, UK. .,School of Natural Sciences and Psychology, Liverpool John Moores University, Liverpool, L3 3AF, UK.
| | - David Weetman
- Department of Vector Biology, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Pembroke Place, Liverpool, L3 5QA, UK.
| | - Carla A Sousa
- Global Health & Tropical Medicine, Instituto de Higiene e Medicina Tropical, Universidade Nova de Lisboa, Rua da Junqueira 100, 1349-008, Lisbon, Portugal.
| | - Maria T Novo
- Global Health & Tropical Medicine, Instituto de Higiene e Medicina Tropical, Universidade Nova de Lisboa, Rua da Junqueira 100, 1349-008, Lisbon, Portugal.
| | - Harry M Savage
- Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 3156 Rampart Road, Fort Collins, CO, 80521, USA.
| | - António P G Almeida
- Global Health & Tropical Medicine, Instituto de Higiene e Medicina Tropical, Universidade Nova de Lisboa, Rua da Junqueira 100, 1349-008, Lisbon, Portugal.
| | - João Pinto
- Global Health & Tropical Medicine, Instituto de Higiene e Medicina Tropical, Universidade Nova de Lisboa, Rua da Junqueira 100, 1349-008, Lisbon, Portugal.
| | - Martin J Donnelly
- Department of Vector Biology, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Pembroke Place, Liverpool, L3 5QA, UK.
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Nelms BM, Kothera L, Thiemann T, Macedo PA, Savage HM, Reisen WK. Phenotypic variation among Culex pipiens complex (Diptera: Culicidae) populations from the Sacramento Valley, California: horizontal and vertical transmission of West Nile virus, diapause potential, autogeny, and host selection. Am J Trop Med Hyg 2013; 89:1168-78. [PMID: 24043690 DOI: 10.4269/ajtmh.13-0219] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022] Open
Abstract
The vector competence and bionomics of Culex pipiens form pipiens L. and Cx. pipiens f. molestus Forskäl were evaluated for populations from the Sacramento Valley. Both f. pipiens and f. molestus females became infected, produced disseminated infections, and were able to transmit West Nile virus. Form molestus females also transmitted West Nile virus vertically to egg rafts and F1 progeny, whereas f. pipiens females only transmitted to egg rafts. Culex pipiens complex from urban Sacramento blood-fed on seven different avian species and two mammalian species. Structure analysis of blood-fed mosquitoes identified K = 4 genetic clusters: f. molestus, f. pipiens, a group of genetically similar hybrids (Cluster X), and admixed individuals. When females were exposed as larvae to midwinter conditions in bioenvironmental chambers, 85% (N = 79) of aboveground Cx. pipiens complex females and 100% (N = 34) of underground f. molestus females did not enter reproductive diapause.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brittany M Nelms
- Center for Vectorborne Diseases, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, California; Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Fort Collins, Colorado; Sacramento-Yolo Mosquito and Vector Control District, Elk Grove, California
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A Kassim NF, Webb CE, Wang Q, Russell RC. Australian distribution, genetic status and seasonal abundance of the exotic mosquitoCulex molestus(Forskal) (Diptera: Culicidae). ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2013. [DOI: 10.1111/aen.12021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Affiliation(s)
| | - Cameron E Webb
- Department of Medical Entomology; The University of Sydney and Westmead Hospital; Westmead; NSW; 2145; Australia
| | - Qinning Wang
- Centre for Infectious Diseases and Microbiology; Institute of Clinical Pathology and Medical Research; Westmead Hospital; Westmead; NSW; 2145; Australia
| | - Richard C Russell
- Department of Medical Entomology; The University of Sydney and Westmead Hospital; Westmead; NSW; 2145; Australia
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Kassim NFA, Webb CE, Russell RC. The importance of males: larval diet and adult sugar feeding influences reproduction in Culex molestus. JOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN MOSQUITO CONTROL ASSOCIATION 2012; 28:312-316. [PMID: 23393755 DOI: 10.2987/12-6274r.1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/01/2023]
Abstract
Culex molestus is an obligatory autogenous mosquito that is closely associated with subterranean habitats in urban areas. The objective of our study was to investigate the influence of larval and adult nutrition on the role of males in determining the expression of autogeny in Cx. molestus. Mosquitoes raised at low and high larval diets had sex ratio, wing length, mating rates, autogenous egg raft size, and hatching rates recorded. There was a higher ratio of males to females when raised at a low larval diet. Mean wing lengths of both males and females were significantly greater when raised at the high larval diet regime. Regardless of larval or adult diet, males mated with only a single female. Mosquitoes raised at the higher larval diet regimes developed significantly more autogenous eggs. However, the egg raft size was reduced when adult females were denied access to sugar. The results of this study indicate that the performance of males in the reproductive process is influenced by both larval diet and adult sugar feeding.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nur Faeza A Kassim
- School of Biological Sciences, Universiti Sains Malaysia, 11800 Minden, Penang, Malaysia
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