Hepatic stellate cells activate and avoid death under necroptosis stimuli: Hepatic fibrosis during necroptosis

Adenosine triphosphate-binding pocket inhibitor for mixed lineage kinase domain-like protein attenuated alcoholic liver disease via necroptosis-independent pathway

BACKGROUND

Mixed lineage kinase domain-like protein (MLKL) serves as a critical mediator in necroptosis, a form of regulated cell death linked to various liver diseases. This study aims to specifically investigate the role of MLKL's adenosine triphosphate (ATP)-binding pocket in facilitating necroptosis-independent pathways that may contribute to liver disease progression. By focusing on this mechanism, we seek to identify potential therapeutic targets that can modulate MLKL activity, offering new strategies for the prevention and treatment of liver-related pathologies.

AIM

To investigate the possibility of using the ATP-binding pocket-associated, necroptosis-independent MLKL pathway as a target for liver diseases.

METHODS

Cell death following necroptosis stimuli was evaluated using cell proliferation assays, flow cytometry, and electron microscopy in various cells. The human liver organoid system was used to evaluate whether the MLKL ATP pocket-binding inhibitor could attenuate inflammation. Additionally, alcoholic and non-alcoholic fatty liver diseases animal models were used to determine whether MLKL ATP pocket inhibitors could attenuate liver injury.

RESULTS

While an MLKL ATP pocket-binding inhibitor did not prevent necroptosis-induced cell death in RAW 264.7 cells, it did reduce the necroptosis-led expression of CXCL2, ICAM, and VCAM. Notably, MLKL ATP pocket inhibitor diminishes the expression of CXCL2, ICAM, and VCAM by inhibiting the IκB kinase and nuclear factor kappa-B pathways without inducing necroptosis-induced cell death in two-dimensional cell culture as well as the human-derived liver organoid system. Although MLKL ATP-binding inhibitor was ineffective in non-alcoholic fatty liver disease animal models, MLKL ATP-binding inhibitor attenuated hepatic inflammation in the alcoholic liver disease model.

CONCLUSION

MLKL ATP pocket-binding inhibitor exerted anti-inflammatory effects through the necroptosis-independent MLKL pathway in an animal model of alcoholic liver disease.

Deletion of Mixed Lineage Kinase Domain Like Pseudokinase Aggravates Chronic Alcohol-Induced Liver Injury via Increasing Apoptosis

BACKGROUND AND AIM

he mixed lineage kinase domain like pseudokinase (MLKL) is known to play a protective role in non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) via inhibition of necroptosis pathway. However, the role of MLKL in alcoholic liver disease (ALD) is not yet clear.

METHOD

C57BL/6N wild-type (WT) and MLKL-knockout (KO) mice (8-10 weeks old) were randomly divided into eight groups. To establish ALD model of different durations, ethanol (EtOH) was fed to WT and MLKL KO for 10 days, 4 weeks, and 8 weeks. The control group was fed with Lieber-DeCarli control diet for 8 weeks. Mortality, degree of hepatic inflammation, and steatosis were compared among the groups. Bulk mRNA transcriptome analysis was performed. Abundance of transcript and gene expressions were calculated based on read count or Transcript by Million (TPM) value.

RESULTS

Survival rate of MLKL KO mice compared to WT was similar until 4 weeks, but the survival of MLKL KO mice significantly decreased after 8 weeks in ALD model. There was no difference in degree of inflammation, steatosis, and NAS scores between EtOH-fed MLKL KO and EtOH-fed WT mice at 10 days. However, at 4 weeks and 8 weeks, the degree of hepatic steatosis, NAS, and inflammation were increased in MLKL KO mice. RNA transcriptome data showed that fatty acid synthesis, and lipogenesis, mitochondria, and apoptosis-related pathways were upregulated in EtOH-fed MLKL KO mice compared to EtOH-fed WT mice. Although hepatocyte apoptosis (BAX/BCL2 ratio, caspase-3, and TUNEL staining) increased after EtOH intake; however, apoptosis was more significantly increased in EtOH-fed MLKL KO mice compared to the WT group. At the same time, hepatic cFLIP was decreased in EtOH-fed MLKL KO mice compared to the WT group.

CONCLUSION

MLKL deletion did not prevent chronic alcohol-induced liver damage independently of necroptosis and exacerbated hepatic steatosis by increasing hepatocyte apoptosis.

Necroptosis contributes to non-alcoholic fatty liver disease pathoetiology with promising diagnostic and therapeutic functions

Nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) is the most prevalent type of chronic liver disease. However, the disease is underappreciated as a remarkable chronic disorder as there are rare managing strategies. Several studies have focused on determining NAFLD-caused hepatocyte death to elucidate the disease pathoetiology and suggest functional therapeutic and diagnostic options. Pyroptosis, ferroptosis, and necroptosis are the main subtypes of non-apoptotic regulated cell deaths (RCDs), each of which represents particular characteristics. Considering the complexity of the findings, the present study aimed to review these types of RCDs and their contribution to NAFLD progression, and subsequently discuss in detail the role of necroptosis in the pathoetiology, diagnosis, and treatment of the disease. The study revealed that necroptosis is involved in the occurrence of NAFLD and its progression towards steatohepatitis and cancer, hence it has potential in diagnostic and therapeutic approaches. Nevertheless, further studies are necessary.

Non-Necroptotic Roles of MLKL in Diet-Induced Obesity, Liver Pathology, and Insulin Sensitivity: Insights from a High-Fat, High-Fructose, High-Cholesterol Diet Mouse Model

Chronic inflammation is a key player in metabolic dysfunction-associated fatty liver disease (MAFLD) progression. Necroptosis, an inflammatory cell death pathway, is elevated in MAFLD patients and mouse models, yet its role is unclear due to the diverse mouse models and inhibition strategies. In our study, we inhibited necroptosis by targeting mixed lineage kinase domain-like pseudokinase (MLKL), the terminal effector of necroptosis, in a high-fat, high-fructose, high-cholesterol (HFHFrHC) mouse model of diet-induced MAFLD. Despite the HFHFrHC diet upregulating MLKL (2.5-fold), WT mice livers showed no increase in necroptosis markers or associated proinflammatory cytokines. Surprisingly, Mlkl-/- mice experienced exacerbated liver inflammation without protection from diet-induced liver damage, steatosis, or fibrosis. In contrast, Mlkl+/- mice showed a significant reduction in these parameters that was associated with elevated Pparα and Pparγ levels. Both Mlkl-/- and Mlkl+/- mice on the HFHFrHC diet resisted diet-induced obesity, attributed to the increased beiging, enhanced oxygen consumption, and energy expenditure due to adipose tissue, and exhibited improved insulin sensitivity. These findings highlight the tissue-specific effects of MLKL on the liver and adipose tissue, and they suggest a dose-dependent effect of MLKL on liver pathology.

3-Monochloropropane-1,2-diol esters induce HepG2 cells necroptosis via CTSB/TFAM/ROS pathway

3-monochloropropane-1,2-diol esters (3-MCPDE) are toxic substances that form in food thermal processing and have a diverse range of toxicities. In this study, we found that 3-MCPDE triggered necroptosis by RIPK1/RIPK3/MLKL pathway in HepG2 cells. Previous studies have shown that ROS is an important activator of RIPK1 and RIPK3. The data showed that 3-MCPDE induced excessive ROS production through mitochondrial damage. After treatment with ROS inhibitor N-acetylcysteine (NAC), 3-MCPDE-induced necroptosis was relieved. Further, we explored how 3-MCPDE destroys mitochondria. The data suggested that 3-MCPDE induced mitochondrial dysfunction through the CTSB/TFAM pathway. Overall, the results indicated that 3-MCPDE induced necroptosis through CTSB/TFAM/ROS pathway in HepG2 cells. Our study provided a new mechanism for 3-MCPDE hepatotoxicity.

Non-Necroptotic Roles of MLKL in Diet-Induced Obesity, Liver Pathology, and Insulin Sensitivity: Insights from a High Fat, High Fructose, High Cholesterol Diet Mouse Model

Chronic inflammation is a key player in metabolic dysfunction-associated fatty liver disease (MAFLD) progression. Necroptosis, an inflammatory cell death pathway, is elevated in MAFLD patients and mouse models, yet its role is unclear due to diverse mouse models and inhibition strategies. In our study, we inhibited necroptosis by targeting mixed lineage kinase domain like pseudokinase (MLKL), the terminal effector of necroptosis, in a high-fat, high-fructose, high-cholesterol (HFHFrHC) mouse model of diet-induced MAFLD mouse model. Despite HFHFrHC diet upregulating MLKL (2.5-fold), WT mice livers showed no increase in necroptosis markers or associated proinflammatory cytokines. Surprisingly, Mlkl -/- mice experienced exacerbated liver inflammation without protection from diet-induced liver damage, steatosis, or fibrosis. In contrast, Mlkl +/- mice showed significant reduction in these parameters that was associated with elevated Pparα and Pparγ levels. Both Mlkl -/- and Mlkl +/- mice on HFHFrHC diet resisted diet-induced obesity, attributed to increased beiging, enhanced oxygen consumption and energy expenditure due to adipose tissue, and exhibited improved insulin sensitivity. These findings highlight the tissue specific effects of MLKL on the liver and adipose tissue, and suggest a dose-dependent effect of MLKL on liver pathology.