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Rodríguez-Barrera R, Rivas-González M, García-Sánchez J, Mojica-Torres D, Ibarra A. Neurogenesis after Spinal Cord Injury: State of the Art. Cells 2021; 10:cells10061499. [PMID: 34203611 PMCID: PMC8232196 DOI: 10.3390/cells10061499] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/21/2021] [Revised: 05/24/2021] [Accepted: 06/08/2021] [Indexed: 01/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Neurogenesis in the adult state is the process of new neuron formation. This relatively infrequent phenomenon comprises four stages: cell proliferation, cell migration, differentiation, and the integration of these cells into an existing circuit. Recent reports suggest that neurogenesis can be found in different regions of the Central Nervous System (CNS), including the spinal cord (SC). This process can be observed in physiological settings; however, it is more evident in pathological conditions. After spinal cord injury (SCI), the activation of microglial cells and certain cytokines have shown to exert different modulatory effects depending on the presence of inflammation and on the specific region of the injury site. In these conditions, microglial cells and cytokines are considered to play an important role in the regulation of neurogenesis after SCI. The purpose of this article is to present an overview on neural progenitor cells and neurogenic and non-neurogenic zones as well as the cellular and molecular regulation of neurogenesis. Additionally, we will briefly describe the recent advances in the knowledge of neurogenesis after SCI.
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Zamani A, Xiao J, Turnley AM, Murray SS. Tropomyosin-Related Kinase B (TrkB) Regulates Neurite Outgrowth via a Novel Interaction with Suppressor of Cytokine Signalling 2 (SOCS2). Mol Neurobiol 2018; 56:1262-1275. [PMID: 29881947 DOI: 10.1007/s12035-018-1168-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/27/2017] [Accepted: 05/31/2018] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) is highly expressed in the hippocampus, where it can initiate signalling pathways leading to neurite outgrowth, neuron survival, spine maturation and increased synapse strength. Although suppressor of cytokine signalling 2 (SOCS2) is primarily known to negatively regulate cytokine signalling, it is also highly expressed in the hippocampus and exerts neuron-specific functions in the brain, effecting the length and architecture of neurons. However, little is known about the role of SOCS2 in the hippocampus. In this study, we hypothesised that SOCS2 may have a regulatory role in BDNF-dependent neurite growth and hippocampal neuronal function. Here our data demonstrate that SOCS2 interacts with the kinase domain of the BDNF receptor TrkB. Germline overexpression of SOCS2 results in a BDNF-dependent increase in hippocampal neurite outgrowth, whereas deletion of SOCS2 results in shorter neurite outgrowth. Expression of SOCS2 also results in increased ubiquitination of the juxtamembrane region of TrkB, and alters the trafficking of TrkB into recycling endosomes. Collectively, our data suggest a novel role for SOCS2 in interacting with and regulating the trafficking of TrkB, leading to increased neurite outgrowth in hippocampus neurons.
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Affiliation(s)
- Akram Zamani
- Department of Anatomy and Neuroscience, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Victoria, 3010, Australia.
| | - Junhua Xiao
- Department of Anatomy and Neuroscience, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Victoria, 3010, Australia
| | - Ann M Turnley
- Department of Anatomy and Neuroscience, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Victoria, 3010, Australia
| | - Simon S Murray
- Department of Anatomy and Neuroscience, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Victoria, 3010, Australia
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Shin YJ, Riew TR, Jin X, Choi JH, Lee MY. Increased expression of suppressor of cytokine signaling 2 in the subventricular zone after transient focal cerebral ischemia in adult rats. Brain Res 2016; 1648:163-171. [DOI: 10.1016/j.brainres.2016.07.040] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2016] [Revised: 07/20/2016] [Accepted: 07/25/2016] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
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Basrai HS, Turbic A, Christie KJ, Turnley AM. Suppressor of Cytokine Signalling 2 (SOCS2) Regulates Numbers of Mature Newborn Adult Hippocampal Neurons and Their Dendritic Spine Maturation. Cell Mol Neurobiol 2016; 37:899-909. [PMID: 27655030 DOI: 10.1007/s10571-016-0427-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/04/2016] [Accepted: 09/13/2016] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Overexpression of suppressor of cytokine signalling 2 (SOCS2) has been shown to promote hippocampal neurogenesis in vivo and promote neurite outgrowth of neurons in vitro. In the adult mouse brain, SOCS2 is most highly expressed in the hippocampal CA3 region and at lower levels in the dentate gyrus, an expression pattern that suggests a role in adult neurogenesis. Herein we examine generation of neuroblasts and their maturation into more mature neurons in SOCS2 null (SOCS2KO) mice. EdU was administered for 7 days to label proliferative neural precursor cells. The number of EdU-labelled doublecortin+ neuroblasts and NeuN+ mature neurons they generated was examined at day 8 and day 35, respectively. While no effect of SOCS2 deletion was observed in neuroblast generation, it reduced the numbers of EdU-labelled mature newborn neurons at 35 days. As SOCS2 regulates neurite outgrowth and dentate granule neurons project to the CA3 region, alterations in dendritic arborisation or spine formation may have correlated with the decreased numbers of EdU-labelled newborn neurons. SOCS2KO mice were crossed with Nes-CreERT2/mTmG mice, in which membrane eGFP is inducibly expressed in neural precursor cells and their progeny, and the dendrite and dendritic spine morphology of newborn neurons were examined at 35 days. SOCS2 deletion had no effect on total dendrite length, number of dendritic segments, number of branch points or total dendritic spine density but increased the number of mature "mushroom" spines. Our results suggest that endogenous SOCS2 regulates numbers of EdU-labelled mature newborn adult hippocampal neurons, possibly by mediating their survival and that this may be via a mechanism regulating dendritic spine maturation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Harleen S Basrai
- Department of Anatomy and Neuroscience, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC, 3010, Australia
| | - Alisa Turbic
- Department of Anatomy and Neuroscience, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC, 3010, Australia
| | - Kimberly J Christie
- Department of Anatomy and Neuroscience, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC, 3010, Australia
| | - Ann M Turnley
- Department of Anatomy and Neuroscience, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC, 3010, Australia.
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Brant F, Miranda AS, Esper L, Gualdrón-López M, Cisalpino D, de Souza DDG, Rachid MA, Tanowitz HB, Teixeira MM, Teixeira AL, Machado FS. Suppressor of cytokine signaling 2 modulates the immune response profile and development of experimental cerebral malaria. Brain Behav Immun 2016; 54:73-85. [PMID: 26765997 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbi.2016.01.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/17/2015] [Revised: 12/23/2015] [Accepted: 01/04/2016] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Plasmodium falciparum infection results in severe malaria in humans, affecting various organs, including the liver, spleen and brain, and resulting in high morbidity and mortality. The Plasmodium berghei ANKA (PbA) infection in mice closely recapitulates many aspects of human cerebral malaria (CM); thus, this model has been used to investigate the pathogenesis of CM. Suppressor of cytokine signaling 2 (SOCS2), an intracellular protein induced by cytokines and hormones, modulates the immune response, neural development, neurogenesis and neurotrophic pathways. However, the role of SOCS2 during CM remains unknown. SOCS2 knockout (SOCS2(-/-)) mice infected with PbA show an initial resistance to infection with reduced parasitemia and production of TNF, TGF-β, IL-12 and IL-17 in the brain. Interestingly, in the late phase of infection, SOCS2(-/-) mice display increased parasitemia and reduced Treg cell infiltration, associated with enhanced levels of Th1 and Th17 cells and related cytokines IL-17, IL-6, and TGF-β in the brain. A significant reduction in protective neurotrophic factors, such as glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor (GDNF) and brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), was also observed. Moreover, the molecular alterations in the brain of infected SOCS2(-/-) mice were associated with anxiety-related behaviors and cognition impairment. Mechanistically, these results revealed enhanced nitric oxide (NO) production in PbA-infected SOCS2(-/-) mice, and the inhibition of NO synthesis through l-NAME led to a marked decrease in survival, the disruption of parasitemia control and more pronounced anxiety-like behavior. Treatment with l-NAME also shifted the levels of Th1, Th7 and Treg cells in the brains of infected SOCS2(-/-) mice to the background levels observed in infected WT, with remarkable exception of increased CD8(+)IFN(+) T cells and inflammatory monocytes. These results indicate that SOCS2 plays a dual role during PbA infection, being detrimental in the control of the parasite replication but crucial in the regulation of the immune response and production of neurotrophic factors. Here, we provided strong evidence of a critical relationship between SOCS2 and NO in the orchestration of the immune response and development of CM during PbA infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fatima Brant
- Program in Health Sciences: Infectious Diseases and Tropical Medicine, School of Medicine, Federal University of Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil; Department of Biochemistry and Immunology, Institute of Biological Science, Federal University of Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil
| | - Aline S Miranda
- Program in Health Sciences: Infectious Diseases and Tropical Medicine, School of Medicine, Federal University of Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil; Department of Biochemistry and Immunology, Institute of Biological Science, Federal University of Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil
| | - Lisia Esper
- Program in Health Sciences: Infectious Diseases and Tropical Medicine, School of Medicine, Federal University of Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil; Department of Biochemistry and Immunology, Institute of Biological Science, Federal University of Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil
| | - Melisa Gualdrón-López
- Department of Biochemistry and Immunology, Institute of Biological Science, Federal University of Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil
| | - Daniel Cisalpino
- Department of Microbiology, Institute of Biological Science, Federal University of Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil
| | - Danielle da Gloria de Souza
- Department of Microbiology, Institute of Biological Science, Federal University of Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil
| | - Milene Alvarenga Rachid
- Department of Pathology, Institute of Biological Science, Federal University of Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil
| | - Herbert B Tanowitz
- Department of Pathology and Medicine, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY, USA
| | - Mauro Martins Teixeira
- Program in Health Sciences: Infectious Diseases and Tropical Medicine, School of Medicine, Federal University of Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil; Department of Biochemistry and Immunology, Institute of Biological Science, Federal University of Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil
| | - Antônio Lucio Teixeira
- Program in Health Sciences: Infectious Diseases and Tropical Medicine, School of Medicine, Federal University of Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil; Department of Biochemistry and Immunology, Institute of Biological Science, Federal University of Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil
| | - Fabiana Simão Machado
- Program in Health Sciences: Infectious Diseases and Tropical Medicine, School of Medicine, Federal University of Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil; Department of Biochemistry and Immunology, Institute of Biological Science, Federal University of Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil.
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Basrai HS, Christie KJ, Turbic A, Bye N, Turnley AM. Suppressor of Cytokine Signaling-2 (SOCS2) Regulates the Microglial Response and Improves Functional Outcome after Traumatic Brain Injury in Mice. PLoS One 2016; 11:e0153418. [PMID: 27071013 PMCID: PMC4829250 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0153418] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/11/2016] [Accepted: 03/29/2016] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Traumatic brain injury (TBI) is frequently characterized by neuronal, axonal and myelin loss, reactive gliosis and neuroinflammation, often associated with functional deficits. Endogenous repair mechanisms include production of new neurons from precursor cells, but usually the new neurons fail to integrate and survive more than a few weeks. This is in part mediated by the toxic and inflammatory environment present in the injured brain which activates precursor cells to proliferate and differentiate but limits survival of the newborn progeny. Therefore, an understanding of mechanisms that regulate production and survival of newborn neurons and the neuroinflammatory response after brain injury may lead to therapeutic options to improve outcomes. Suppressor of Cytokine Signaling 2 (SOCS2) promotes hippocampal neurogenesis and survival of newborn neurons in the adult brain and regulates anti-inflammatory responses in the periphery, suggesting it may be a useful candidate to improve outcomes of TBI. In this study the functional and cellular responses of SOCS2 over-expressing transgenic (SOCS2Tg) mice were compared to wildtype littermates following mild or moderately severe TBI. Unlike wildtype controls, SOCS2Tg mice showed functional improvement on a ladder test, with a smaller lesion volume at 7d post injury and increased numbers of proliferative CD11b+ microglia/macrophages at 35d post-injury in the mild injury paradigm. At 7d post-moderately severe injury there was an increase in the area covered by cells expressing an anti-inflammatory M2 phenotype marker (CD206+) but no difference in cells with a pro-inflammatory M1 phenotype marker (CD16/32+). No effect of SOCS2 overexpression was observed in production or survival of newborn neurons, even in the presence of the neuroprotective agent erythropoietin (EPO). Therefore, SOCS2 may improve outcome of TBI in mice by regulating aspects of the neuroinflammatory response, promoting a more anti-inflammatory environment, although this was not sufficient to enhance survival of newborn cortical neurons.
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Affiliation(s)
- Harleen S. Basrai
- Department of Anatomy and Neuroscience, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
| | - Kimberly J. Christie
- Department of Anatomy and Neuroscience, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
| | - Alisa Turbic
- Department of Anatomy and Neuroscience, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
| | - Nicole Bye
- Department of Anatomy and Neuroscience, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
| | - Ann M. Turnley
- Department of Anatomy and Neuroscience, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
- * E-mail:
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Shin YJ, Riew TR, Park JH, Pak HJ, Lee MY. Expression of SOCS2 mRNA and protein in the ischemic core and penumbra after transient focal cerebral ischemia in rats. Cell Tissue Res 2015; 364:67-81. [PMID: 26563457 DOI: 10.1007/s00441-015-2319-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/27/2015] [Revised: 10/20/2015] [Accepted: 10/22/2015] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
The suppressor of cytokine signaling 2 (SOCS2) has been reported to be involved in astroglial reactions and adult neurogenesis in the ischemic hippocampus. To elucidate whether SOCS2 is implicated in the pathophysiology of stroke, we investigate spatiotemporal regulation and identification of cell phenotypes expressing SOCS2 after transient focal cerebral ischemia. Weak hybridization signals for SOCS2 mRNA were constitutively observed in striatal neurons and upregulation of SOCS2 mRNA was induced in association with nestin-positive cells in stroke-lesioned rats. Analysis of the characteristics and phenotypes of SOCS2/nestin double-labeled cells revealed spatial differences between infarct and peri-infarct areas. SOCS2/nestin double-labeled cells in the infarct area were associated with the vasculature and were highly proliferative. In contrast, the double-labeled cells in the peri-infarct area were indeed glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP)-positive reactive astrocytes forming the glial scar, although nestin-negative reactive astrocytes also exhibited weak SOCS2 expression. In addition, induction of SOCS2 expression was observed in Iba1-positive cells showing a macrophage-like phenotype with amoeboid morphology; these cells were predominantly localized in the infarct area. In the peri-infarct area, only a small proportion of Iba1-positive cells with the morphology of brain macrophages expressed SOCS2 and most activated stellate microglial cells with thick and short processes exhibited weak or negligible SOCS2 expression. Thus, our results revealed the phenotypic and functional heterogeneity of SOCS2-expressing cells within infarct and peri-infarct areas, suggesting the involvement of SOCS2 in astroglial reactions and activation/recruitment of brain macrophages and its potential role in perivascular progenitors/stem cells after ischemic stroke.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yoo-Jin Shin
- Department of Anatomy, Catholic Neuroscience Institute, College of Medicine, The Catholic University of Korea, Seoul, 137-701, South Korea.
| | - Tae-Ryong Riew
- Department of Anatomy, Catholic Neuroscience Institute, College of Medicine, The Catholic University of Korea, Seoul, 137-701, South Korea
| | - Joo-Hee Park
- Department of Anatomy, Catholic Neuroscience Institute, College of Medicine, The Catholic University of Korea, Seoul, 137-701, South Korea
| | - Ha-Jin Pak
- Department of Anatomy, Catholic Neuroscience Institute, College of Medicine, The Catholic University of Korea, Seoul, 137-701, South Korea
| | - Mun-Yong Lee
- Department of Anatomy, Catholic Neuroscience Institute, College of Medicine, The Catholic University of Korea, Seoul, 137-701, South Korea.
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Krawczyk P, Twarog E, Kurowska E, Klopotowska D, Matuszyk J. Establishment of a cellular model to study TrkC-dependent neuritogenesis. In Vitro Cell Dev Biol Anim 2014; 51:241-8. [PMID: 25398493 DOI: 10.1007/s11626-014-9829-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/14/2014] [Accepted: 09/23/2014] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
The rat PC12 cell line has become a widely used research tool for many aspects of neurobiology. Nerve growth factor (NGF)-responsive PC12 cells were engineered to drive expression of doxycycline (Dox)-induced gene of interest in the Tet-On expression system that resulted in obtaining PC12-Tet-On cells. TrkA and TrkC are neurotrophin receptors derived from the tropomyosin-related kinase (Trk) family of receptor tyrosine kinases. TrkA receptor binds and is activated mainly by NGF, while TrkC receptor binds and is activated by neurotrophin 3 (NT3). The purpose of this research was to design and describe PC12-based neuronal cell model to study TrkC-triggered versus TrkA-triggered neurite outgrowth. The second-generation tetracycline-responsive promoter (P tight) was used in order to provide low basal expression in the absence of Dox and high-level Dox-induced expression of TrkC. The main advantage of presented model system is dependence of TrkC level on Dox concentration. It also allows to compare activation of intracellular signaling proteins and neurite outgrowth following activation of TrkA and TrkC receptors by NGF and NT3, respectively, in the context of the same quality and quantity of intracellular adaptor proteins, Ras proteins, protein kinases and phosphatases, and phospholipase Cγ1, as a difference in the activation of intracellular signaling network by these two distinct although related receptor tyrosine kinases is expected. The results of our studies suggest that despite slightly weaker activation of ERK1/2 mitogen-activated protein kinases, NT3-triggered TrkC seems to provide apparently stronger than NGF-triggered TrkA signal for neurite elongation in differentiating PC12 cells.
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Uren RT, Turnley AM. Regulation of neurotrophin receptor (Trk) signaling: suppressor of cytokine signaling 2 (SOCS2) is a new player. Front Mol Neurosci 2014; 7:39. [PMID: 24860421 PMCID: PMC4030161 DOI: 10.3389/fnmol.2014.00039] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/13/2014] [Accepted: 04/21/2014] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
The classic neurotrophins Nerve Growth Factor (NGF), Brain Derived Neurotrophic Factor (BDNF) and Neurotrophins NT-3 and NT-4 are well known to regulate various aspects of neuronal differentiation, survival and growth. They do this by binding to their cognate receptors, members of the Tropomyosin-related kinase (Trk) receptor tyrosine kinase family, namely TrkA, TrkB, and TrkC. These receptors are then internalized and localized to different cellular compartments, where signal transduction occurs. Conversely, members of the suppressor of cytokine signaling (SOCS) family are best known as negative regulators of signaling via the JAK/STAT pathway. Some members of the family, and in particular SOCS2, have roles in the nervous system that at least partially overlap with that of neurotrophins, namely neuronal differentiation and neurite outgrowth. Recent evidence suggests that SOCS2 is a novel regulator of NGF signaling, altering TrkA cellular localization and downstream signaling to affect neurite growth but not neuronal survival. This review first discusses regulation of Trk receptor signaling, followed by the role of SOCS2 in the nervous system and finishes with a discussion of possible mechanisms by which SOCS2 may regulate TrkA function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rachel T Uren
- Neural Regeneration Laboratory, Centre for Neuroscience Research and Department of Anatomy and Neuroscience, The University of Melbourne Melbourne, VIC, Australia
| | - Ann M Turnley
- Neural Regeneration Laboratory, Centre for Neuroscience Research and Department of Anatomy and Neuroscience, The University of Melbourne Melbourne, VIC, Australia
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