Nerve growth factor inhibits osmotic swelling of rat retinal glial (Müller) and bipolar cells by inducing glial cytokine release

Müller cells trophism and pathology as the next therapeutic targets for retinal diseases

Müller cells are a crucial retinal cell type involved in multiple regulatory processes and functions that are essential for retinal health and functionality. Acting as structural and functional support for retinal neurons and photoreceptors, Müller cells produce growth factors, regulate ion and fluid homeostasis, and facilitate neuronal signaling. They play a pivotal role in retinal morphogenesis and cell differentiation, significantly contributing to macular development. Due to their radial morphology and unique cytoskeletal organization, Müller cells act as optical fibers, efficiently channeling photons directly to the photoreceptors. In response to retinal damage, Müller cells undergo specific gene expression and functional changes that serve as a first line of defense for neurons, but can also lead to unwarranted cell dysfunction, contributing to cell death and neurodegeneration. In some species, Müller cells can reactivate their developmental program, promoting retinal regeneration and plasticity-a remarkable ability that holds promising therapeutic potential if harnessed in mammals. The crucial and multifaceted roles of Müller cells-that we propose to collectively call "Müller cells trophism"-highlight the necessity of maintaining their functionality. Dysfunction of Müller cells, termed "Müller cells pathology," has been associated with a plethora of retinal diseases, including age-related macular degeneration, diabetic retinopathy, vitreomacular disorders, macular telangiectasia, and inherited retinal dystrophies. In this review, we outline how even subtle disruptions in Müller cells trophism can drive the pathological cascade of Müller cells pathology, emphasizing the need for targeted therapies to preserve retinal health and prevent disease progression.

Molecular pathways in experimental glaucoma models

Glaucoma is a complex and progressive disease that primarily affects the optic nerve axons, leading to irreversible vision loss. Although the exact molecular mechanisms underlying glaucoma pathogenesis are not fully understood, it is believed that except increased intraocular pressure, a combination of genetic and environmental factors play a role in the development of the disease. Animal models have been widely used in the study of glaucoma, allowing researchers to better understand the underlying mechanisms of the disease and test potential treatments. Several molecular pathways have been implicated in the pathogenesis of glaucoma, including oxidative stress, inflammation, and excitotoxic-induced neurodegeneration. This review summarizes the most important knowledge about molecular mechanisms involved in the glaucoma development. Although much research has been done to better understand the molecular mechanisms underlying this disease, there is still much to be learned to develop effective treatments and prevent vision loss in those affected by glaucoma.

Glaucoma: from pathogenic mechanisms to retinal glial cell response to damage

Glaucoma is a neurodegenerative disease of the retina characterized by the irreversible loss of retinal ganglion cells (RGCs) leading to visual loss. Degeneration of RGCs and loss of their axons, as well as damage and remodeling of the lamina cribrosa are the main events in the pathogenesis of glaucoma. Different molecular pathways are involved in RGC death, which are triggered and exacerbated as a consequence of a number of risk factors such as elevated intraocular pressure (IOP), age, ocular biomechanics, or low ocular perfusion pressure. Increased IOP is one of the most important risk factors associated with this pathology and the only one for which treatment is currently available, nevertheless, on many cases the progression of the disease continues, despite IOP control. Thus, the IOP elevation is not the only trigger of glaucomatous damage, showing the evidence that other factors can induce RGCs death in this pathology, would be involved in the advance of glaucomatous neurodegeneration. The underlying mechanisms driving the neurodegenerative process in glaucoma include ischemia/hypoxia, mitochondrial dysfunction, oxidative stress and neuroinflammation. In glaucoma, like as other neurodegenerative disorders, the immune system is involved and immunoregulation is conducted mainly by glial cells, microglia, astrocytes, and Müller cells. The increase in IOP produces the activation of glial cells in the retinal tissue. Chronic activation of glial cells in glaucoma may provoke a proinflammatory state at the retinal level inducing blood retinal barrier disruption and RGCs death. The modulation of the immune response in glaucoma as well as the activation of glial cells constitute an interesting new approach in the treatment of glaucoma.

Prospects for the application of Müller glia and their derivatives in retinal regenerative therapies

Neural cell death is the main feature of all retinal degenerative disorders that lead to blindness. Despite therapeutic advances, progression of retinal disease cannot always be prevented, and once neuronal cell damage occurs, visual loss cannot be reversed. Recent research in the stem cell field, and the identification of Müller glia with stem cell characteristics in the human eye, have provided hope for the use of these cells in retinal therapies to restore vision. Müller glial cells, which are the major structural cells of the retina, play a very important role in retinal homeostasis during health and disease. They are responsible for the spontaneous retinal regeneration observed in zebrafish and lower vertebrates during early postnatal life, and despite the presence of Müller glia with stem cell characteristics in the adult mammalian retina, there is no evidence that they promote regeneration in humans. Like many other stem cells and neurons derived from pluripotent stem cells, Müller glia with stem cell potential do not differentiate into retinal neurons or integrate into the retina when transplanted into the vitreous of experimental animals with retinal degeneration. However, despite their lack of integration, grafted Müller glia have been shown to induce partial restoration of visual function in spontaneous or induced experimental models of photoreceptor or retinal ganglion cell damage. This improvement in visual function observed after Müller cell transplantation has been ascribed to the release of neuroprotective factors that promote the repair and survival of damaged neurons. Due to the development and availability of pluripotent stem cell lines for therapeutic uses, derivation of Müller cells from retinal organoids formed by iPSC and ESC has provided more realistic prospects for the application of these cells to retinal therapies. Several opportunities for research in the regenerative field have also been unlocked in recent years due to a better understanding of the genomic and proteomic profiles of the developing and regenerating retina in zebrafish, providing the basis for further studies of the human retina. In addition, the increased interest on the nature and function of cellular organelle release and the characterization of molecular components of exosomes released by Müller glia, may help us to design new approaches that could be applied to the development of more effective treatments for retinal degenerative diseases.

Retrobulbar administration of purified anti-nerve growth factor in developing rats induces structural and biochemical changes in the retina and cornea

AIM

To develop an experimental model of endogenous nerve growth factor (NGF) deprivation by retrobulbar administration of purified neutralizing anti-NGF antibodies in young Sprague-Dawley rats and provide further information on NGF expression in the retina and cornea.

METHODS

Sixty old pathogen-free Sprague Dawley rats (p14, post-natal days) were treated with repeated retrobulbar injections of neutralizing anti-NGF (2 µL, 100 µg/mL, every 3d). After 2wk (p28), retinal and corneal tissues were investigated for morphological, biochemical, and molecular expression of trkA^NGFR by using Western blotting or immunofluorescence. Rhodopsin as well as protein profile expression were also investigated.

RESULTS

Chronic retrobulbar neutralizing anti-NGF antibodies changed the distribution of trkA^NGFR immunoreactivity at retinal level, while no changes were detected for global trkA^NGFR protein expression. By contrary, the treatment resulted in the increase of corneal trkA^NGFR expression. Retinal tissues showed a decreased rhodopsin expression as well as reduced number of both rhodopsin expressing and total retinal cells, as observed after single cell extraction. A decreased expression of ICAM-1, IL-17 and IL-13 as well as an increased expression of IL-21 typified retinal extracts. No significant changes were observed for corneal tissues.

CONCLUSION

The reduced availability of endogenous NGF, as produced by chronic retrobulbar anti-NGF administration, produce a quick response from retinal tissues, with respect to corneal ones, suggesting the presence of early compensatory mechanisms to protect retinal networking.

Neuroinflammation in Primary Open-Angle Glaucoma

Primary open-angle glaucoma (POAG) is the second leading cause of irreversible blindness worldwide. Increasing evidence suggests oxidative damage and immune response defects are key factors contributing to glaucoma onset. Indeed, both the failure of the trabecular meshwork tissue in the conventional outflow pathway and the neuroinflammation process, which drives the neurodegeneration, seem to be linked to the age-related over-production of free radicals (i.e., mitochondrial dysfunction) and to oxidative stress-linked immunostimulatory signaling. Several previous studies have described a wide range of oxidative stress-related makers which are found in glaucomatous patients, including low levels of antioxidant defences, dysfunction/activation of glial cells, the activation of the NF-κB pathway and the up-regulation of pro-inflammatory cytokines, and so on. However, the intraocular pressure is still currently the only risk factor modifiable by medication or glaucoma surgery. This present review aims to summarize the multiple cellular processes, which promote different risk factors in glaucoma including aging, oxidative stress, trabecular meshwork defects, glial activation response, neurodegenerative insults, and the altered regulation of immune response.

Glaucoma: A Degenerative Optic Neuropathy Related to Neuroinflammation?

Glaucoma is one of the leading causes of irreversible blindness in the world and remains a major public health problem. To date, incomplete knowledge of this disease’s pathophysiology has resulted in current therapies (pharmaceutical or surgical) unfortunately having only a slowing effect on disease progression. Recent research suggests that glaucomatous optic neuropathy is a disease that shares common neuroinflammatory mechanisms with “classical” neurodegenerative pathologies. In addition to the death of retinal ganglion cells (RGCs), neuroinflammation appears to be a key element in the progression and spread of this disease. Indeed, early reactivity of glial cells has been observed in the retina, but also in the central visual pathways of glaucoma patients and in preclinical models of ocular hypertension. Moreover, neuronal lesions are not limited to retinal structure, but also occur in central visual pathways. This review summarizes and puts into perspective the experimental and clinical data obtained to date to highlight the need to develop neuroprotective and immunomodulatory therapies to prevent blindness in glaucoma patients.

Lactate: More Than Merely a Metabolic Waste Product in the Inner Retina

The retina is an extension of the central nervous system and has been considered to be a simplified, more tractable and accessible version of the brain for a variety of neuroscience investigations. The optic nerve displays changes in response to underlying neurodegenerative diseases, such as stroke, multiple sclerosis, and Alzheimer's disease, as well as inner retinal neurodegenerative disease, e.g., glaucoma. Neurodegeneration has increasingly been linked to dysfunctional energy metabolism or conditions in which the energy supply does not meet the demand. Likewise, increasing lactate levels have been correlated with conditions consisting of unbalanced energy supply and demand, such as ischemia-associated diseases or excessive exercise. Lactate has thus been acknowledged as a metabolic waste product in organs with high energy metabolism. However, in the past decade, numerous beneficial roles of lactate have been revealed in the central nervous system. In this context, lactate has been identified as a valuable energy substrate, protecting against glutamate excitotoxicity and ischemia, as well as having signaling properties which regulate cellular functions. The present review aims to summarize and discuss protective roles of lactate in various model systems (in vitro, ex vivo, and in vivo) reflecting the inner retina focusing on lactate metabolism and signaling in inner retinal homeostasis and disease.

Nerve growth factor promotes the proliferation of Müller cells co-cultured with internal limiting membrane by regulating cell cycle via Trk-A/PI3K/Akt pathway

Background

Nerve growth factor (NGF), produced by Müller cells, and internal limiting membrane (ILM) have fundamental roles in the development of full-thickness macular hole (FTMH). However, the potential crosstalk between NGF and ILM in FTMH is unclear. This study aimed to explore the mechanism and effects of NGF on the proliferation of Müller cells co-cultured with ILM.

Methods

Primary Müller cells and ILM from New Zealand rabbits were extracted and authenticated with specific staining. Müller cells co-cultured with or without ILM were exposed to NGF and then analysed. Müller cell viability was estimated using cell counting kit-8. Cell cycle analysis was performed by flow cytometry. The levels of cell cycle-related gene were detected using qRT-PCR. The TrK-A/Akt signal axis and downstream signaling cascades such as p21, CyclinE, CDK2, CyclinD1, and CDK4 were investigated by western blotting.

Results

ILM treatment alone induced the proliferation of Müller cells following the promotion of phosphorylated Akt, while growth of Müller cells was enhanced by activation of the Trk-A/Akt pathway under the stimulation of NGF or NGF + ILM. Additionally, the ratio of S-phase cells was increased, while G2-phase cells decreased upon the treatment with either ILM or NGF alone, or with NGF + ILM co-treatment. Cell cycle-related genes such as CyclinD1, CyclinE, CDK2, and CDK4 were all upregulated, but p21 expression was downregulated in the presence of NGF, ILM, or NGF + ILM. There was an additive effect on cell proliferation and cell cycle in the group of Müller cells exposed to NGF co-cultured with ILM compared with either NGF or ILM treatment alone. However, both K252ɑ (inhibitors of Trk-A) and LY294002 (inhibitor for Akt) counteracted the effect of NGF or NGF + ILM on the protein levels of Trk-A, Akt, CyclinD1, CyclinE, CDK2, and p21.

Conclusions

Müller cells co-cultured with ILM or NGF promoted cell proliferation by regulating cell cycle-correlated proteins via the PI3K/Akt pathway. ILM + NGF further amplified the PI3K/Akt signaling pathway by binding to Trk-A, leading to more cell growth. This study provides new insight into the potential mechanism of NGF-mediated proliferation of Müller cells co-cultured with or without ILM, which may have considerable impact on therapies for FTMH.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (10.1186/s12886-019-1142-x) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Immunohistochemical localization of NGF, BDNF, and their receptors in a normal and AMD-like rat retina

BACKGROUND

Age-related macular degeneration (AMD) is a major cause of blindness in developed countries, and the molecular pathogenesis of AMD is poorly understood. A large body of evidence has corroborated the key role of neurotrophins in development, proliferation, differentiation, and survival of retinal cells. Neurotrophin deprivation has been proposed to contribute to retinal-cell death associated with neurodegenerative diseases. Little is known about the expression of the immature form of neurotrophins (proneurotrophins) and their mature form [e.g., nerve growth factor (proNGF and mNGF) and brain-derived neurotrophic factor (proBDNF and mBDNF)] in the retina during physiological aging and against the background of AMD. In addition, cell-specific localization of proteins NGF and BDNF in the retina during AMD development is not clear. Here, we evaluated contributions of the age-related alterations in the neurotrophin system to the development of AMD-like retinopathy in OXYS rats.

METHODS

Male OXYS rats at preclinical (20 days), early (3 months), and late (18 months) stages of the disease and age-matched male Wistar rats (as controls) were used. We performed immunohistochemical localization of NGF, BDNF, and their receptors TrkA, TrkB, and p75NTR by fluorescence microscopy in retinal sections from OXYS and Wistar rats.

RESULTS

We found increased NGF staining in Muller cells in 18-month-old OXYS rats (progressive stage of retinopathy). In contrast, we observed only subtle changes in the labeling of mature BDNF (mBDNF) and TrkB during the development of AMD-like retinopathy in OXYS rats. Using colocalization with vimentin and NeuN, we detected a difference in the cell type-specific localization of mBDNF between OXYS and Wistar rats. We showed that the mBDNF protein was located in Muller cells in OXYS rats, whereas in the Wistar retina, mBDNF immunoreactivity was detected in Muller cells and ganglion cells. During the development of AMD-like retinopathy, proBDNF dominated over mBDNF during increasing cell loss in the OXYS retina.

CONCLUSIONS

These data indicate that alterations in the balance of neurotrophic factors in the retina are involved in the development of AMD-like retinopathy in OXYS rats and confirm their participation in the pathogenesis of AMD in humans.

Changes in vitreal protein profile and retina mRNAs in Reeler mice: NGF, IL33 and Müller cell activation

A possible link between Nerve Growth Factor (NGF) and Reelin might take place during impaired retinal development occurring in the Reelin deficient mouse model (Reeler). To better characterize NGF and retina impairments at the Reeler retina, vitreous and retina were investigated by means of protein expression and glial cell activation. Reeler (n = 9; RELN^-/-) and WT (n = 9; wild-type RELN^+/+, B6C3Fe) mice were analyzed at 14, 21 and 28 postnatal days (p). Retinas and vitreous were subjected to confocal analysis and protein array, followed by conventional analysis. A significant increase of NGF, IL33 and TIMP1, a trend to a decrease of IL12 and IL6, as well as a significant decrease of NT3 were detected in Reeler vitreous, particularly at p28 (p<0.05). MIP3β mRNA was decreased while IL33mRNA was significantly upregulated in Reeler retina. Increased number of GFAP⁺ and Nestin⁺ cells as well as upregulation of Glutamine Synthetase and Nestin mRNAs were observed in Reeler retinas (p<0.05). These findings extend our previous studies on Reeler retina showing a selective Müller cell activation. NGF and IL33 release into vitreous would suggest a local activation of Müller cells, in addition to retinal ganglion and accessory cells. Overall, the data from this experimental study would strength the potential neuroprotective role played by activated Muller cells through NGF release.

The Role of Endogenous Neuroprotective Mechanisms in the Prevention of Retinal Ganglion Cells Degeneration

Retinal neurons are not able to undergo spontaneous regeneration in response to damage. A variety of stressors, i.e., UV radiation, high temperature, ischemia, allergens, and others, induce reactive oxygen species production, resulting in consecutive alteration of stress-response gene expression and finally can lead to cell apoptosis. Neurons have developed their own endogenous cellular protective systems. Some of them are preventing cell death and others are allowing functional recovery after injury. The high efficiency of these mechanisms is crucial for cell survival. In this review we focus on the contribution of the most recently studied endogenous neuroprotective factors involved in retinal ganglion cell (RGC) survival, among which, neurotrophic factors and their signaling pathways, processes regulating the redox status, and different pathways regulating cell death are the most important. Additionally, we summarize currently ongoing clinical trials for therapies for RGC degeneration and optic neuropathies, including glaucoma. Knowledge of the endogenous cellular protective mechanisms may help in the development of effective therapies and potential novel therapeutic targets in order to achieve progress in the treatment of retinal and optic nerve diseases.

EphrinB/EphB forward signaling in Müller cells causes apoptosis of retinal ganglion cells by increasing tumor necrosis factor alpha production in rat experimental glaucomatous model

It was previously shown that EphB/ephrinB reverse signaling in retinal ganglion cells (RGCs) is activated and involved in RGC apoptosis in a rat chronic ocular hypertension (COH) model. In the present work, we first show that ephrinB/EphB forward signaling was activated in COH retinas, and RGC apoptosis in COH retinas was reduced by PP2, an inhibitor of ephrinB/EphB forward signaling. We further demonstrate that treatment of cultured Müller cells with ephrinB1-Fc, an EphB1 activator, or intravitreal injection of ephrinB1-Fc in normal rats induced an increase in phosphorylated EphB levels in these cells, indicating the activation of ephrinB/EphB forward signaling, similar to those in COH retinas. The ephrinB1-Fc treatment did not induce Müller cell gliosis, as evidenced by unchanged GFAP expression, but significantly up-regulated mRNA and protein levels of tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) in Müller cells, thereby promoting RGC apoptosis. Production of TNF-α induced by the activation of ephrinB/EphB forward signaling was mediated by the NR2B subunit of NMDA receptors, which was followed by a distinct PI3K/Akt/NF-κB signaling pathway, as pharmacological interference of each step of this pathway caused a reduction of TNF-α production, thus attenuating RGC apoptosis. Functional analysis of forward and reverse signaling in such a unique system, in which ephrin and Eph exist respectively in a glial element and a neuronal element, is of theoretical importance. Moreover, our results also raise a possibility that suppression of ephrinB/EphB forward signaling may be a new strategy for ameliorating RGC apoptosis in glaucoma.

Effects of BNN27, a novel C17-spiroepoxy steroid derivative, on experimental retinal detachment-induced photoreceptor cell death

Retinal detachment (RD) leads to photoreceptor cell death secondary to the physical separation of the retina from the underlying retinal pigment epithelium. Intensifying photoreceptor survival in the detached retina could be remarkably favorable for many retinopathies in which RD can be seen. BNN27, a blood-brain barrier (BBB)-permeable, C17-spiroepoxy derivative of dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA) has shown promising neuroprotective activity through interaction with nerve growth factor receptors, TrkA and p75^NTR. Here, we administered BNN27 systemically in a murine model of RD. TUNEL⁺ photoreceptors were significantly decreased 24 hours post injury after a single administration of 200 mg/kg BNN27. Furthermore, BNN27 increased inflammatory cell infiltration, as well as, two markers of gliosis 24 hours post RD. However, single or multiple doses of BNN27 were not able to protect the overall survival of photoreceptors 7 days post injury. Additionally, BNN27 did not induce the activation/phosphorylation of TrkA^Y490 in the detached retina although the mRNA levels of the receptor were increased in the photoreceptors post injury. Together, these findings, do not demonstrate neuroprotective activity of BNN27 in experimentally-induced RD. Further studies are needed in order to elucidate the paradox/contradiction of these results and the mechanism of action of BNN27 in this model of photoreceptor cell damage.

Role of Purines in Müller Glia

Müller glia, the principal macroglia of the retina, express diverse subtypes of adenosine and metabotropic purinergic (P2Y) receptors. Müller cells of several species, including man, also express ionotropic P2X₇ receptors. ATP is liberated from Müller cells after activation of metabotropic glutamate receptors and during osmotic and mechanical induction of membrane stretch; adenosine is released through equilibrative nucleoside transporters. Müller cell-derived purines modulate the neuronal activity and have autocrine effects, for example, induction of glial calcium waves and regulation of the cellular volume. Glial calcium waves induced by neuron-derived ATP mediate functional hyperemia in the retina. Purinergic signaling contributes to the induction of Müller cell gliosis, for example, of cellular proliferation and downregulation of potassium channels, which are important for the homeostatic functions of Müller cells. Purinergic glial calcium waves may also promote the long-range propagation of gliosis and neuronal degeneration across the retinal tissue. The osmotic ATP release is inhibited under pathological conditions. Inhibition of the ATP release may result in osmotic Müller cell swelling and dysregulation of the water transport through the cells; both may contribute to the development of retinal edema. Suppression of the osmotic ATP release and upregulation of the ecto-apyrase (NTPDase1), which facilitate the extracellular degradation of ATP and the formation of adenosine, may protect neurons and photoreceptors from death due to overactivation of P2X receptors. Pharmacological inhibition of P2X₇ receptors and stimulation of adenosine receptors may represent clinical approaches to prevent retinal cell death and dysregulated cell proliferation, and to treat retinal edema.

Mechanisms of macular edema: Beyond the surface

Macular edema consists of intra- or subretinal fluid accumulation in the macular region. It occurs during the course of numerous retinal disorders and can cause severe impairment of central vision. Major causes of macular edema include diabetes, branch and central retinal vein occlusion, choroidal neovascularization, posterior uveitis, postoperative inflammation and central serous chorioretinopathy. The healthy retina is maintained in a relatively dehydrated, transparent state compatible with optimal light transmission by multiple active and passive systems. Fluid accumulation results from an imbalance between processes governing fluid entry and exit, and is driven by Starling equation when inner or outer blood-retinal barriers are disrupted. The multiple and intricate mechanisms involved in retinal hydro-ionic homeostasis, their molecular and cellular basis, and how their deregulation lead to retinal edema, are addressed in this review. Analyzing the distribution of junction proteins and water channels in the human macula, several hypotheses are raised to explain why edema forms specifically in the macular region. "Pure" clinical phenotypes of macular edema, that result presumably from a single causative mechanism, are detailed. Finally, diabetic macular edema is investigated, as a complex multifactorial pathogenic example. This comprehensive review on the current understanding of macular edema and its mechanisms opens perspectives to identify new preventive and therapeutic strategies for this sight-threatening condition.

Expression and signaling of NGF in the healthy and injured retina

This review summarizes the present knowledge concerning the retinal localization of the nerve growth factor (NGF), its precursor proNGF, and the receptors TrkA and p75NTR in the developing and mature rodent retina. We further discuss the changes in the expression of NGF and the receptors in experimental models of retinal disorders and diseases like inherited retinitis pigmentosa, retinal detachment, glaucoma, and diabetic retinopathy. Since proNGF is now recognized as a bioactive signaling molecule which induces cell death through p75NTR activation, the role of proNGF in the induction of retinal cell loss under neurodegenerative conditions is also highlighted. In addition, we present the evidences for a potential therapeutic intervention with NGF for the treatment of retinal neurodegenerative diseases. Different strategies have been developed and experimentally tested in mice and rats in order to reduce cell loss and Müller cell gliosis, e.g., increasing the availability of endogenous NGF, administration of exogenous NGF, activation of TrkA, and inhibition of p75NTR. Here, we discuss the several lines of evidence supporting a protective effect of NGF on retinal cell loss, with specific emphasis on photoreceptor and retinal ganglion cell degeneration. A better understanding of the mechanisms underlying the effects of NGF and proNGF in the modulation of neurodegeneration and gliosis in the retina will help to develop efficient therapeutic strategies for various retinal diseases.

Serum levels of neurotrophic factors in active toxoplasmic retinochoroiditis

Toxoplasmic retinochoroiditis (TR) is the most common identifiable cause of posterior uveitis in Brazil. Response to treatment and clinical presentation may vary significantly. We assessed serum levels of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor (GDNF), nerve growth factor (NGF), neurotrophin (NT)-3, and NT-4/5 in patients with active TR, before and after TR treatment.

Methods

Twenty patients with active lesion and 15 healthy controls were enrolled in the study. Serum concentration of neurotrophic factors was determined by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay.

Results

BDNF levels were significantly higher in patients before treatment when compared with controls (p = 0.0015). There was no significant difference in pro-BDNF, NGF, GDNF, NT-3, and NT-4/5 levels between TR patients and controls. Treatment did not affect the levels of these factors.

Conclusion

BDNF may be released in the context of the active TR inflammatory response.

Involvement of P2X7 receptors in retinal ganglion cell apoptosis induced by activated Müller cells

Müller cell reactivation (gliosis) is an early response in glaucomatous retina. Previous studies have demonstrated that activation of P2X₇ receptors results in retinal ganglion cell (RGC) apoptosis. Here, the issues of whether and how activated Müller cells may contribute to RGC apoptosis through P2X₇ receptors were investigated. Either intravitreal injection of (S)-3,5-dihydroxyphenylglycine (DHPG), a group I metabotropic glutamate receptor (mGluR I) agonist, in normal rat retinas, or DHPG treatment of purified cultured rat retinal Müller cells induced an increase in glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) expression, indicative of Müller cell gliosis. In addition, an increase in adenosine triphosphate (ATP) release from purified cultured Müller cells was detected during DHPG treatment (for 10 min to 48 h), which was mediated by the intracellular mGluR5/Gq/PI-PLC/PKC signaling pathway. Intravitreal injection of DHPG mimicked the reduction in the number of fluorogold retrogradely labeled RGCs in chronic ocular hypertension (COH) rats. Treatment with the conditioned culture medium (CM) obtained from the DHPG-activated Müller cell medium induced an increase in the number of TUNEL-positive cells in cultured RGCs, which was mimicked by benzoylbenzoyl adenosine triphosphate (BzATP), a P2X₇ receptor agonist, but was partially blocked by brilliant blue G (BBG), a P2X₇ receptor antagonist. Moreover, the CM treatment of cultured RGCs significantly increased Bax protein level and decreased Bcl-2 protein level, which was also mimicked by BzATP and partially blocked by BBG, respectively. These results suggest that reactivated Müller cells may release excessive ATP, in turn leading to RGC apoptosis through activating P2X₇ receptors in these cells.

Activated Müller Cells Involved in ATP-Induced Upregulation of P2X7 Receptor Expression and Retinal Ganglion Cell Death

P2X₇ receptor (P2X₇R), an ATP-gated ion channel, plays an important role in glaucomatous retinal ganglion cell (RGC) apoptotic death, in which activated retinal Müller glial cells may be involved by releasing ATP. In the present study, we investigated whether and how activated Müller cells may induce changes in P2X₇R expression in RGCs by using immunohistochemistry and Western blot techniques. Intravitreal injection of DHPG, a group I metabotropic glutamate receptor (mGluR I) agonist, induced upregulation of GFAP expression, suggestive of Müller cell activation (gliosis), as we previously reported. Accompanying Müller cell activation, P2X₇R protein expression was upregulated, especially in the cells of ganglion cell layer (GCL), which was reversed by coinjection of brilliant blue G (BBG), a P2X₇R blocker. In addition, intravitreal injection of ATP also induced upregulation of P2X₇R protein expression. Similar results were observed in cultured retinal neurons by ATP treatment. Moreover, both DHPG and ATP intravitreal injection induced a reduction in the number of fluorogold retrogradely labeled RGCs, and the DHPG effect was partially rescued by coinjection of BBG. All these results suggest that activated Müller cells may release ATP and, in turn, induce upregulation of P2X₇R expression in the cells of GCL, thus contributing to RGC death.

Endothelins Inhibit Osmotic Swelling of Rat Retinal Glial and Bipolar Cells by Activation of Growth Factor Signaling

Water accumulation in retinal glial (Müller) and neuronal cells resulting in cellular swelling contributes to the development of retinal edema and neurodegeneration. Here, we show that endothelin-1 (ET-1) dose-dependently inhibits the hypoosmotic swelling of Müller cells in freshly isolated retinal slices of control and diabetic rats, with a maximal inhibition at 100 nM. Osmotic Müller cell swelling was also inhibited by ET-2. The effect of ET-1 was mediated by activation of ET_A and ET_B receptors resulting in transactivation of metabotropic glutamate receptors, purinergic P2Y₁, and adenosine A₁ receptors. ET-1 (but not ET-2) also inhibited the osmotic swelling of bipolar cells in retinal slices, but failed to inhibit the swelling of freshly isolated bipolar cells. The inhibitory effect of ET-1 on the bipolar cell swelling in retinal slices was abrogated by inhibitors of the FGF receptor kinase (PD173074) and of TGF-β1 superfamily activin receptor-like kinase receptors (SB431542), respectively. Both Müller and bipolar cells displayed immunoreactivities of ET_A and ET_B receptor proteins. The data may suggest that neuroprotective effects of ETs in the retina are in part mediated by prevention of the cytotoxic swelling of retinal glial and bipolar cells. ET-1 acts directly on Müller cells, while the inhibitory effect of ET-1 on bipolar cell swelling is indirectly mediated, via stimulation of the release of growth factors like bFGF and TGF-β1 from Müller cells.

Impaired Purinergic Regulation of the Glial (Müller) Cell Volume in the Retina of Transgenic Rats Expressing Defective Polycystin-2

Retinal glial (Müller) cells possess an endogenous purinergic signal transduction cascade which normally prevents cellular swelling in osmotic stress. The cascade can be activated by osmotic or glutamate receptor-dependent ATP release. We determined whether activation of this cascade is altered in Müller cells of transgenic rats that suffer from a slow photoreceptor degeneration due to the expression of a truncated human cilia gene polycystin-2 (CMV-PKD21/703 HA). Age-matched Sprague-Dawley rats served as control. Retinal slices were superfused with a hypoosmotic solution (60 % osmolarity). Müller cells in retinas of PKD21/703 rats swelled immediately in hypoosmotic stress; this was not observed in control retinas. Pharmacological blockade of P2Y1 or adenosine A1 receptors induced osmotic swelling of Müller cells from control rats. The swelling induced by the P2Y1 receptor antagonist was mediated by induction of oxidative-nitrosative stress, mitochondrial dysfunction, production of inflammatory lipid mediators, and a sodium influx from the extracellular space. Exogenous VEGF or glutamate prevented the hypoosmotic swelling of Müller cells from PKD21/703 rats; this effect was mediated by activation of the purinergic signaling cascade. In neuroretinas of PKD21/703 rats, the gene expression levels of P2Y1 and A1 receptors, pannexin-1, connexin 45, NTPDases 1 and 2, and various subtypes of nucleoside transporters are elevated compared to control. The data may suggest that the osmotic swelling of Müller cells from PKD21/703 rats is caused by an abrogation of the osmotic ATP release while the glutamate-induced ATP release is functional. In the normal retina, ATP release and autocrine P2Y1 receptor activation serve to inhibit the induction of oxidative-nitrosative stress, mitochondrial dysfunction, and production of inflammatory lipid mediators, which otherwise will induce a sodium influx and cytotoxic Müller cell swelling under anisoosmotic conditions. Purinergic receptors may represent a target for the protection of retinal glial cells from mitochondrial oxidative stress.

Ischemic regulation of brain-derived neurotrophic factor-mediated cell volume and TrkB expression in glial (Müller) and bipolar cells of the rat retina

BACKGROUND

Osmotic swelling of neurons and glial cells contributes to retinal edema and neurodegeneration. BDNF, a major neuroprotectant in the retina, was shown to inhibit osmotic swelling of glial (Müller) and bipolar cells in the rat retina; the effect of BDNF on the bipolar cell swelling is mediated by inducing a release of neuroprotective cytokines from Müller cells (Berk et al., Neuroscience 295:175-186, 2015). We determined whether BDNF-mediated cell volume regulation was altered after transient retinal ischemia.

METHODS

Retinal slices from the eyes of rats that underwent a 1-h pressure-induced retinal ischemia and from control eyes were superfused with a hypoosmotic solution.

RESULTS

Exogenous BDNF prevented osmotic swelling of Müller cells in both control and post-ischemic retinal slices. BDNF also prevented osmotic swelling of bipolar cells in the control retina, but not in the ischemic retina. On the other hand, exogenous bFGF prevented the swelling of both Müller and bipolar cells in the ischemic retina. Freshly isolated Müller cells of control retinas displayed immunoreactivity of truncated but not full-length TrkB. In contrast, Müller cells of post-ischemic retinas displayed immunoreactivity of both TrkB isoforms. Bipolar cells isolated from control and post-ischemic retinas were immunolabeled for both TrkB isoforms.

CONCLUSIONS

The data may suggest that the ischemic abrogation of the BDNF effect in bipolar cells is related to altered BDNF receptor expression in Müller cells. Glial upregulation of full-length TrkB may support the survival of Müller cells in the ischemic retina, but may impair the BDNF-induced release of neuroprotective cytokines such as bFGF from Müller cells.

Sigma-1 receptor activation inhibits osmotic swelling of rat retinal glial (Müller) cells by transactivation of glutamatergic and purinergic receptors

Water accumulation in retinal glial (Müller) and neuronal cells resulting in cellular swelling contributes to the development of retinal edema and neurodegeneration. Sigma (σ) receptor activation is known to have neuroprotective effects in the retina. Here, we show that the nonselective σ receptor agonist ditolylguanidine, and the selective σ1 receptor agonist PRE-084, inhibit the osmotic swelling of Müller cell somata induced by superfusion of rat retinal slices with a hypoosmotic solution containing barium ions. In contrast, PRE-084 did not inhibit the osmotic swelling of bipolar cell somata. The effects of σ receptor agonists on the Müller cell swelling were abrogated in the presence of blockers of metabotropic glutamate and purinergic P2Y1 receptors, respectively, suggesting that σ receptor activation triggers activation of a glutamatergic-purinergic signaling cascade which is known to prevent the osmotic Müller cell swelling. The swelling-inhibitory effect of 17β-estradiol was prevented by the σ1 receptor antagonist BD1047, suggesting that the effect is mediated by σ1 receptor activation. The data may suggest that the neuroprotective effect of σ receptor activation in the retina is in part mediated by prevention of the cytotoxic swelling of retinal glial cells.

The Proteome of Native Adult Müller Glial Cells From Murine Retina

To date, the proteomic profiling of Müller cells, the dominant macroglia of the retina, has been hampered because of the absence of suitable enrichment methods. We established a novel protocol to isolate native, intact Müller cells from adult murine retinae at excellent purity which retain in situ morphology and are well suited for proteomic analyses. Two different strategies of sample preparation - an in StageTips (iST) and a subcellular fractionation approach including cell surface protein profiling were used for quantitative liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MSMS) comparing Müller cell-enriched to depleted neuronal fractions. Pathway enrichment analyses on both data sets enabled us to identify Müller cell-specific functions which included focal adhesion kinase signaling, signal transduction mediated by calcium as second messenger, transmembrane neurotransmitter transport and antioxidant activity. Pathways associated with RNA processing, cellular respiration and phototransduction were enriched in the neuronal subpopulation. Proteomic results were validated for selected Müller cell genes by quantitative real time PCR, confirming the high expression levels of numerous members of the angiogenic and anti-inflammatory annexins and antioxidant enzymes (e.g. paraoxonase 2, peroxiredoxin 1, 4 and 6). Finally, the significant enrichment of antioxidant proteins in Müller cells was confirmed by measurements on vital retinal cells using the oxidative stress indicator CM-H2DCFDA. In contrast to photoreceptors or bipolar cells, Müller cells were most efficiently protected against H₂O₂-induced reactive oxygen species formation, which is in line with the protein repertoire identified in the proteomic profiling. Our novel approach to isolate intact glial cells from adult retina in combination with proteomic profiling enabled the identification of novel Müller glia specific proteins, which were validated as markers and for their functional impact in glial physiology. This provides the basis to allow the discovery of novel glial specializations and will enable us to elucidate the role of Müller cells in retinal pathologies — a topic still controversially discussed.

Glia-neuron interactions in the mammalian retina

The mammalian retina provides an excellent opportunity to study glia-neuron interactions and the interactions of glia with blood vessels. Three main types of glial cells are found in the mammalian retina that serve to maintain retinal homeostasis: astrocytes, Müller cells and resident microglia. Müller cells, astrocytes and microglia not only provide structural support but they are also involved in metabolism, the phagocytosis of neuronal debris, the release of certain transmitters and trophic factors and K(+) uptake. Astrocytes are mostly located in the nerve fibre layer and they accompany the blood vessels in the inner nuclear layer. Indeed, like Müller cells, astrocytic processes cover the blood vessels forming the retinal blood barrier and they fulfil a significant role in ion homeostasis. Among other activities, microglia can be stimulated to fulfil a macrophage function, as well as to interact with other glial cells and neurons by secreting growth factors. This review summarizes the main functional relationships between retinal glial cells and neurons, presenting a general picture of the retina recently modified based on experimental observations. The preferential involvement of the distinct glia cells in terms of the activity in the retina is discussed, for example, while Müller cells may serve as progenitors of retinal neurons, astrocytes and microglia are responsible for synaptic pruning. Since different types of glia participate together in certain activities in the retina, it is imperative to explore the order of redundancy and to explore the heterogeneity among these cells. Recent studies revealed the association of glia cell heterogeneity with specific functions. Finally, the neuroprotective effects of glia on photoreceptors and ganglion cells under normal and adverse conditions will also be explored.

Purinergic signaling in retinal degeneration and regeneration

Purinergic signaling is centrally involved in mediating the degeneration of the injured and diseased retina, the induction of retinal gliosis, and the protection of the retinal tissue from degeneration. Dysregulated calcium signaling triggered by overactivation of P2X7 receptors is a crucial step in the induction of neuronal and microvascular cell death under pathogenic conditions like ischemia-hypoxia, elevated intraocular pressure, and diabetes, respectively. Overactivation of P2X7 plays also a pathogenic role in inherited and age-related photoreceptor cell death and in the age-related dysfunction and degeneration of the retinal pigment epithelium. Gliosis of micro- and macroglial cells, which is induced and/or modulated by purinergic signaling and associated with an impaired homeostatic support to neurons, and the ATP-mediated propagation of retinal gliosis from a focal injury into the surrounding noninjured tissue are involved in inducing secondary cell death in the retina. On the other hand, alterations in the glial metabolism of extracellular nucleotides, resulting in a decreased level of ATP and an increased level of adenosine, may be neuroprotective in the diseased retina. Purinergic signals stimulate the proliferation of retinal glial cells which contributes to glial scarring which has protective effects on retinal degeneration and adverse effects on retinal regeneration. Pharmacological modulation of purinergic receptors, e.g., inhibition of P2X and activation of adenosine receptors, may have clinical importance for the prevention of photoreceptor, neuronal, and microvascular cell death in diabetic retinopathy, retinitis pigmentosa, age-related macular degeneration, and glaucoma, respectively, for the clearance of retinal edema, and the inhibition of dysregulated cell proliferation in proliferative retinopathies. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled 'Purines in Neurodegeneration and Neuroregeneration'.

Rat BMSCs initiate retinal endogenous repair through NGF/TrkA signaling

Müller cells can completely repair retinal injury by acting as endogenous stem/progenitor cells in lower-order vertebrates. However, a safe and effective approach to activate progenitor potential of retinal Müller cells in higher-order vertebrates, which rarely re-enter the cell cycle, is a bottleneck problem. In the present study, Royal College of Surgeon's (RCS) rats were subjected to rat bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells (rBMSCs) subretinal space transplantation. Electroretinography (ERG) recordings showed that the b-wave amplitudes and ONL thicknesses statistically increased after transplantation. The number of Müller cells expressing proliferative, stem/progenitor and neuronal markers significantly increased after rBMSCs transplantation in vivo or after co-culturing with rBMSCs in vitro. The cultured rBMSCs could secrete nerve growth factor (NGF). In addition, we confirmed that NGF or NGF-neutralizing antibody could activate or depress Müller cells dedifferentiation, both in vivo and in vitro. Furthermore, Müller cells expressing high levels of the NGF receptor neurotrophic tyrosine kinase receptor type 1 (TrkA) were observed in the retinas of rats transplanted with rBMSCs. Moreover, the protein expression of downstream elements of NGF/TrkA signaling, such as p-PI3K, p-Akt and p-CREB, increased in Müller cells in the retinas of rBMSCs-treated rats in vivo or in Müller cells co-cultured with rBMSCs in vitro. Blocking TrkA with K-252a reduced the number of dedifferentiated Müller cells and the expression of NGF/TrkA signaling in vitro. Thus, rBMSCs might initiate endogenous regenerative mechanisms, which may constitute a new therapeutic strategy for retinal dystrophic diseases.