Riluzole attenuates glutamatergic tone and cognitive decline in AβPP/PS1 mice

Neuroprotective effects of riluzole in Alzheimer's disease: A comprehensive review

BACKGROUND

Despite several hundred clinical trials of drugs that initially showed promise, there has been limited clinical improvement in Alzheimer's disease (AD). This may be attributed to the existence of at least 25 abnormal cellular pathways that underlie the disease. It is improbable for a single drug to address all or most of these pathways, thus even drugs that show promise when administered alone are unlikely to produce significant results. According to previous studies, eight drugs, namely, dantrolene, erythropoietin, lithium, memantine, minocycline, piracetam, riluzole, and silymarin, have been found to target multiple pathways that are involved in the development of AD. Among these drugs, riluzole is currently indicated for the treatment of medical conditions in both adult patients and children and has gained increased attention from scientists due to its potential in the excitotoxic hypothesis of neurodegenerative diseases.

OBJECTIVE

The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of drugs on AD based on cellular and molecular mechanisms.

METHODS

The literature search for this study utilized the Scopus, ScienceDirect, PubMed, and Google Scholar databases to identify relevant articles.

RESULTS

Riluzole exerts its effects in AD through diverse pathways including the inhibition of voltage-dependent sodium and calcium channels, blocking AMPA and NMDA receptors and inhibiting the release of glutamic acid release and stimulation of EAAT1-EAAT2.

CONCLUSION

In this review article, we aimed to review the neuroprotective properties of riluzole, a glutamate modulator, in AD, which could benefit patients with the disease.

Effects of isoflurane and urethane anesthetics on glutamate neurotransmission in rat brain using in vivo amperometry

BACKGROUND

Aspects of glutamate neurotransmission implicated in normal and pathological conditions are predominantly evaluated using in vivo recording paradigms in rats anesthetized with isoflurane or urethane. Urethane and isoflurane anesthesia influence glutamate neurotransmission through different mechanisms; however, real-time outcome measures of potassium chloride (KCl)-evoked glutamate overflow and glutamate clearance kinetics have not been compared within and between regions of the brain. In order to maintain rigor and reproducibility within the literature between the two most common methods of anesthetized in vivo recording of glutamate, we compared glutamate signaling as a function of anesthesia and brain region in the rat strain most used in neuroscience.

METHODS

In the following experiments, in vivo amperometric recordings of KCl-evoked glutamate overflow and glutamate clearance kinetics (uptake rate and T80) in the cortex, hippocampus, and thalamus were performed using glutamate-selective microelectrode arrays (MEAs) in young adult male, Sprague-Dawley rats anesthetized with either isoflurane or urethane.

RESULTS

Potassium chloride (KCl)-evoked glutamate overflow was similar under urethane and isoflurane anesthesia in all brain regions studied. Analysis of glutamate clearance determined that the uptake rate was significantly faster (53.2%, p < 0.05) within the thalamus under urethane compared to isoflurane, but no differences were measured in the cortex or hippocampus. Under urethane, glutamate clearance parameters were region-dependent, with significantly faster glutamate clearance in the thalamus compared to the cortex but not the hippocampus (p < 0.05). No region-dependent differences were measured for glutamate overflow using isoflurane.

CONCLUSIONS

These data support that amperometric recordings of KCl-evoked glutamate under isoflurane and urethane anesthesia result in similar and comparable data. However, certain parameters of glutamate clearance can vary based on choice of anesthesia and brain region. In these circumstances, special considerations are needed when comparing previous literature and planning future experiments.

The Disruption of NMDAR/TRPM4 Death Signaling with TwinF Interface Inhibitors: A New Pharmacological Principle for Neuroprotection

With the discovery that the acquisition of toxic features by extrasynaptic NMDA receptors (NMDARs) involves their physical interaction with the non-selective cation channel, TRPM4, it has become possible to develop a new pharmacological principle for neuroprotection, namely the disruption of the NMDAR/TRPM4 death signaling complex. This can be accomplished through the expression of the TwinF domain, a 57-amino-acid-long stretch of TRPM4 that mediates its interaction with NMDARs, but also using small molecule TwinF interface (TI) inhibitors, also known as NMDAR/TRPM4 interaction interface inhibitors. Both TwinF and small molecule TI inhibitors detoxify extrasynaptic NMDARs without interfering with synaptic NMDARs, which serve important physiological functions in the brain. As the toxic signaling of extrasynaptic NMDARs contributes to a wide range of neurodegenerative conditions, TI inhibitors may offer therapeutic options for currently untreatable human neurodegenerative diseases including Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis, Alzheimer's disease, and Huntington's disease.

Drug repositioning targeting glutaminase reveals drug candidates for the treatment of Alzheimer's disease patients

BACKGROUND

Despite numerous clinical trials and decades of endeavour, there is still no effective cure for Alzheimer's disease. Computational drug repositioning approaches may be employed for the development of new treatment strategies for Alzheimer's patients since an extensive amount of omics data has been generated during pre-clinical and clinical studies. However, targeting the most critical pathophysiological mechanisms and determining drugs with proper pharmacodynamics and good efficacy are equally crucial in drug repurposing and often imbalanced in Alzheimer's studies.

METHODS

Here, we investigated central co-expressed genes upregulated in Alzheimer's disease to determine a proper therapeutic target. We backed our reasoning by checking the target gene's estimated non-essentiality for survival in multiple human tissues. We screened transcriptome profiles of various human cell lines perturbed by drug induction (for 6798 compounds) and gene knockout using data available in the Connectivity Map database. Then, we applied a profile-based drug repositioning approach to discover drugs targeting the target gene based on the correlations between these transcriptome profiles. We evaluated the bioavailability, functional enrichment profiles and drug-protein interactions of these repurposed agents and evidenced their cellular viability and efficacy in glial cell culture by experimental assays and Western blotting. Finally, we evaluated their pharmacokinetics to anticipate to which degree their efficacy can be improved.

RESULTS

We identified glutaminase as a promising drug target. Glutaminase overexpression may fuel the glutamate excitotoxicity in neurons, leading to mitochondrial dysfunction and other neurodegeneration hallmark processes. The computational drug repurposing revealed eight drugs: mitoxantrone, bortezomib, parbendazole, crizotinib, withaferin-a, SA-25547 and two unstudied compounds. We demonstrated that the proposed drugs could effectively suppress glutaminase and reduce glutamate production in the diseased brain through multiple neurodegeneration-associated mechanisms, including cytoskeleton and proteostasis. We also estimated the human blood-brain barrier permeability of parbendazole and SA-25547 using the SwissADME tool.

CONCLUSIONS

This study method effectively identified an Alzheimer's disease marker and compounds targeting the marker and interconnected biological processes by use of multiple computational approaches. Our results highlight the importance of synaptic glutamate signalling in Alzheimer's disease progression. We suggest repurposable drugs (like parbendazole) with well-evidenced activities that we linked to glutamate synthesis hereby and novel molecules (SA-25547) with estimated mechanisms for the treatment of Alzheimer's patients.

BDNF Augmentation Using Riluzole Reverses Doxorubicin-Induced Decline in Cognitive Function and Neurogenesis

Cancer-related cognitive impairment (CRCI) considerably affects the quality of life of millions of cancer survivors. Brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) has been shown to promote survival, differentiation, and maintenance of in vivo dentate neurogenesis, and chemotherapy induces a plethora of physiological and cellular alterations, including a decline in neurogenesis and increased neuroinflammation linked with cognitive impairments. In our clinical studies, breast cancer patients treated with doxorubicin (Adriamycin®, ADR) experienced a significant reduction in the blood levels of BDNF that was associated with a higher risk of CRCI. Our past rodent studies in CRCI have also shown a significant reduction in dentate neurogenesis accompanied by cognitive impairment. In this study, using a female mouse model of ADR-induced cognitive decline, we tested the impact of riluzole (RZ), an orally active BDNF-enhancing medication that is FDA-approved for amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. ADR-treated mice receiving RZ in the drinking water for 1 month showed significant improvements in hippocampal-dependent learning and memory function (spatial recognition), fear extinction memory consolidation, and reduced anxiety-like behavior. RZ prevented chemotherapy-induced reductions of BDNF levels in the hippocampus. Importantly, RZ mitigated chemotherapy-induced loss of newly born, immature neurons, dentate neurogenesis, and neuroinflammation. In conclusion, this data provides pre-clinical evidence for a translationally feasible approach to enhance the neuroprotective effects of RZ treatment to prevent CRCI.

Riluzole and its prodrugs for the treatment of Alzheimer's disease

Current medications for Alzheimer's disease help manage symptoms and behavioral problems. Nevertheless, they do not slow the progression of cognitive decline or dementia. A potential approach for treating Alzheimer's disease is to target neurons that are sensitive to disease pathobiology such as glutamatergic neurons. Several patents disclosed methods for treating Alzheimer's disease by administering riluzole or its prodrugs. Clinical trials revealed that 6 months treatment using riluzole or troriluzole is associated with a slower decline in the tomographic measures of the positron emissions of cerebral glucose metabolism in Alzheimer's patients. The proposed strategy claims to prevent and/or slow the cognitive decline of Alzheimer's patients and to enhance global functioning. These claims may also pave the way for other glutamate modulators to be used for Alzheimer's disease.

Prodromal Glutamatergic Modulation with Riluzole Impacts Glucose Homeostasis and Spatial Cognition in Alzheimer's Disease Mice

BACKGROUND

Prior research supports a strong link between Alzheimer's disease (AD) and metabolic dysfunction that involves a multi-directional interaction between glucose, glutamatergic homeostasis, and amyloid pathology. Elevated soluble amyloid-β (Aβ) is an early biomarker for AD-associated cognitive decline that contributes to concurrent glutamatergic and metabolic dyshomeostasis in humans and male transgenic AD mice. Yet, it remains unclear how primary time-sensitive targeting of hippocampal glutamatergic activity may impact glucose regulation in an amyloidogenic mouse model. Previous studies have illustrated increased glucose uptake and metabolism using a neuroprotective glutamate modulator (riluzole), supporting the link between glucose and glutamatergic homeostasis.

OBJECTIVE

We hypothesized that targeting early glutamatergic hyperexcitation through riluzole treatment could aid in attenuating co-occurring metabolic and amyloidogenic pathologies with the intent of ameliorating cognitive decline.

METHODS

We conducted an early intervention study in male and female transgenic (AβPP/PS1) and knock-in (APPNL - F/NL - F) AD mice to assess the on- and off-treatment effects of prodromal glutamatergic modulation (2-6 months of age) on glucose homeostasis and spatial cognition through riluzole treatment.

RESULTS

Results indicated a sex- and genotype-specific effect on glucose homeostasis and spatial cognition with riluzole intervention that evolved with disease progression and time since treatment.

CONCLUSION

These findings support the interconnected nature of glucose and glutamatergic homeostasis with amyloid pathology and petition for further investigation into the targeting of this relationship to improve cognitive performance.

Prophylactic Efficacy of Riluzole against Anxiety- and Depressive-Like Behaviors in Two Rodent Stress Models

Introduction

Chronic stress-related illnesses such as major depressive disorder and post-traumatic stress disorder share symptomatology, including anxiety, anhedonia, and helplessness. Across disorders, neurotoxic dysregulated glutamate (Glu) signaling may underlie symptom emergence. Current first-line antidepressant drugs, which do not directly target Glu signaling, fail to provide adequate benefit for many patients and are associated with high relapse rates. Riluzole modulates glutamatergic neurotransmission by increasing metabolic cycling and modulating signal transduction. Clinical studies exploring riluzole's efficacy in stress-related disorders have provided varied results. However, the utility of riluzole for treating specific symptom dimensions or as a prophylactic treatment has not been comprehensively assessed.

Methods

We investigated whether chronic prophylactic riluzole (∼12-15 mg/kg/day p.o.) could prevent the emergence of behavioral deficits induced by unpredictable chronic mild stress (UCMS) in mice. We assessed (i) anxiety-like behavior using the elevated-plus maze, open-field test, and novelty-suppressed feeding, (ii) mixed anxiety/anhedonia-like behavior in the novelty-induced hypophagia test, and (iii) anhedonia-like behavior using the sucrose consumption test. Z-scoring summarized changes across tests measuring similar dimensions. In a separate learned helplessness (LH) cohort, we investigated whether chronic prophylactic riluzole treatment could block the development of helplessness-like behavior.

Results

UCMS induced an elevation in anhedonia-like behavior and overall behavioral emotionality that was blocked by prophylactic riluzole. In the LH cohort, prophylactic riluzole blocked the development of helplessness-like behavior.

Discussion/Conclusion

This study supports the utility of riluzole as a prophylactic medication for preventing anhedonia and helplessness symptoms associated with stress-related disorders.

Molecular mechanisms of Alzheimer's disease: From therapeutic targets to promising drugs

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a neurodegenerative disease characterized by cognitive impairment so widespread that it interferes with a person's ability to complete daily activities. AD is becoming increasingly common, and it is estimated that the number of patients will reach 152 million by 2050. Current treatment options for AD are symptomatic and have modest benefits. Therefore, considering the human, social, and economic burden of the disease, the development of drugs with the potential to alter disease progression has become a global priority. In this review, the molecular mechanisms involved in the pathology of AD were evaluated as therapeutic targets. The main aim of the review is to focus on new knowledge about mitochondrial dysfunction, oxidative stress, and neuronal transmission in AD, as well as a range of cellular signaling mechanisms and associated treatments. Important molecular interactions leading to AD were described in amyloid cascade and in tau protein function, oxidative stress, mitochondrial dysfunction, cholinergic and glutamatergic neurotransmission, cAMP-regulatory element-binding protein (CREB), the silent mating type information regulation 2 homolog 1 (SIRT-1), neuroinflammation (glial cells), and synaptic alterations. This review summarizes recent experimental and clinical research in AD pathology and analyzes the potential of therapeutic applications based on molecular disease mechanisms.

In Silico and In Vitro Studies of Benzothiazole-Isothioureas Derivatives as a Multitarget Compound for Alzheimer's Disease

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a progressive neurodegenerative disorder. Inhibiting acetylcholinesterase (AChE), amyloid beta (Aβ1-42) aggregation and avoiding the oxidative stress could prevent the progression of AD. Benzothiazole groups have shown neuroprotective activity whereas isothioureas groups act as AChE inhibitors and antioxidants. Therefore, 22 benzothiazole-isothiourea derivatives (3a-v) were evaluated by docking simulations as inhibitors of AChE and Aβ1-42 aggregation. In silico studies showed that 3f, 3r and 3t had a delta G (ΔG) value better than curcumin and galantamine on Aβ1-42 and AChE, respectively. The physicochemical and pharmacokinetics predictions showed that only 3t does not violate Lipinski's rule of five, though it has moderated cytotoxicity activity. Then, 3f, 3r and 3t were synthetized and chemically characterized for their in vitro evaluation including their antioxidant activity and their cytotoxicity in PC12 cells. 3r was able to inhibit AChE, avoid Aβ1-42 aggregation and exhibit antioxidant activity; nevertheless, it showed cytotoxic against PC12 cells. Compound 3t showed the best anti-Aβ1-42 aggregation and inhibitory AChE activity and, despite that predictor, showed that it could be cytotoxic; in vitro with PC12 cell was negative. Therefore, 3t could be employed as a scaffold to develop new molecules with multitarget activity for AD and, due to physicochemical and pharmacokinetics predictions, it could be administered in vivo using liposomes due to is not able to cross the BBB.

Pharmacological Modulation of Glutamatergic and Neuroinflammatory Pathways in a Lafora Disease Mouse Model

Lafora disease (LD) is a fatal rare neurodegenerative disorder that affects young adolescents and has no treatment yet. The hallmark of LD is the presence of polyglucosan inclusions (PGs), called Lafora bodies (LBs), in the brain and peripheral tissues. LD is caused by mutations in either EPM2A or EPM2B genes, which, respectively, encode laforin, a glucan phosphatase, and malin, an E3-ubiquitin ligase, with identical clinical features. LD knockout mouse models (Epm2a - / - and Epm2b - / -) recapitulate PG body accumulation, as in the human pathology, and display alterations in glutamatergic transmission and neuroinflammatory pathways in the brain. In this work, we show the results of four pre-clinical trials based on the modulation of glutamatergic transmission (riluzole and memantine) and anti-neuroinflammatory interventions (resveratrol and minocycline) as therapeutical strategies in an Epm2b - / - mouse model. Drugs were administered in mice from 3 to 5 months of age, corresponding to early stage of the disease, and we evaluated the beneficial effect of the drugs by in vivo behavioral phenotyping and ex vivo histopathological brain analyses. The behavioral assessment was based on a battery of anxiety, cognitive, and neurodegenerative tests and the histopathological analyses included a panel of markers regarding PG accumulation, astrogliosis, and microgliosis. Overall, the outcome of ameliorating the excessive glutamatergic neurotransmission present in Epm2b - / - mice by memantine displayed therapeutic effectiveness at the behavioral levels. Modulation of neuroinflammation by resveratrol and minocycline also showed beneficial effects at the behavioral level. Therefore, our study suggests that both therapeutical strategies could be beneficial for the treatment of LD patients. A mouse model of Lafora disease (Epm2b-/-) was used to check the putative beneficial effect of different drugs aimed to ameliorate the alterations in glutamatergic transmission and/or neuroinflammation present in the model. Drugs in blue gave a more positive outcome than the rest.

New insight into the effect of riluzole on cadmium tolerance and accumulation in duckweed (Lemna turionifera)

Cadmium (Cd) damages plant photosynthesis, affects roots and leaves growth, and triggers molecular responses. Riluzole (RIL), which protected neuronal damage via inhibiting excess Glu release in animals, has been found to improve Cd tolerance in duckweed in this study. Firstly, RIL treatment alleviated leaf chlorosis by protecting chlorophyll and decreased root abscission under Cd stress. Secondly, RIL declines Cd accumulation by alleviating excess Glu release during Cd shock. RIL mitigate Glu outburst in duckweed during Cd stress by a decline in Glu in roots. The Cd²⁺ influx was repressed by RIL addition with Cd shock. Finally, differentially expressed genes (DEGs) of duckweed under Cd stress with RIL have been investigated. 2141 genes were substantially up-regulated and 3282 genes were substantially down-regulated with RIL addition. RIL down-regulates the genes related to the Glu synthesis, and genes related to DNA repair have been up-regulated with RIL treatment under Cd stress. These results provide new insights into the possibility of RIL to reduce Cd accumulation and increase Cd tolerance in duckweed, and lay the foundation for decreasing Cd accumulation in crops.

Friend or Foe? Defining the Role of Glutamate in Aging and Alzheimer’s Disease

Aging is a naturally occurring decline of physiological processes and biological pathways that affects both the structural and functional integrity of the body and brain. These physiological changes reduce motor skills, executive function, memory recall, and processing speeds. Aging is also a major risk factor for multiple neurodegenerative disorders including Alzheimer’s disease (AD). Identifying a biomarker, or biomarkers, that signals the transition from physiological to pathological aging would aid in earlier therapeutic options or interventional strategies. Considering the importance of glutamate signaling in synaptic plasticity, motor movement, and cognition, this neurotransmitter serves as a juncture between cognitive health and disease. This article discusses glutamatergic signaling during physiological aging and the pathological changes observed in AD patients. Findings from studies in mouse models of successful aging and AD are reviewed and provide a biological context for this transition. Finally, current techniques to monitor brain glutamate are highlighted. These techniques may aid in elucidating time-point specific therapeutic windows to modify disease outcome.

Amyloid-β42 stimulated hippocampal lactate release is coupled to glutamate uptake

Since brain glucose hypometabolism is a feature of Alzheimer’s disease (AD) progression, lactate utilization as an energy source may become critical to maintaining central bioenergetics. We have previously shown that soluble amyloid-β (Aβ)₄₂ stimulates glutamate release through the α7 nicotinic acetylcholine receptor (α7nAChR) and hippocampal glutamate levels are elevated in the APP/PS1 mouse model of AD. Accordingly, we hypothesized that increased glutamate clearance contributes to elevated extracellular lactate levels through activation of the astrocyte neuron lactate shuttle (ANLS). We utilized an enzyme-based microelectrode array (MEA) selective for measuring basal and phasic extracellular hippocampal lactate in male and female C57BL/6J mice. Although basal lactate was similar, transient lactate release varied across hippocampal subregions with the CA1 > CA3 > dentate for both sexes. Local application of Aβ₄₂ stimulated lactate release throughout the hippocampus of male mice, but was localized to the CA1 of female mice. Coapplication with a nonselective glutamate or lactate transport inhibitor blocked these responses. Expression levels of SLC16A1, lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) A, and B were elevated in female mice which may indicate compensatory mechanisms to upregulate lactate production, transport, and utilization. Enhancement of the ANLS by Aβ₄₂-stimulated glutamate release during AD progression may contribute to bioenergetic dysfunction in AD.

Recent Insights on Glutamatergic Dysfunction in Alzheimer's Disease and Therapeutic Implications

Alzheimer's disease (AD) poses a critical public health challenge, and there is an urgent need for novel treatment options. Glutamate, the principal excitatory neurotransmitter in the human brain, plays a critical role in mediating cognitive and behavioral functions; and clinical symptoms in AD patients are highly correlated with the loss of glutamatergic synapses. In this review, we highlight how dysregulated glutamatergic mechanisms can underpin cognitive and behavioral impairments and contribute to the progression of AD via complex interactions with neuronal and neural network hyperactivity, Aβ, tau, glial dysfunction, and other disease-associated factors. We focus on the tripartite synapse, where glutamatergic neurotransmission occurs, and evidence elucidating how the tripartite synapse can be pathologically altered in AD. We also discuss promising therapeutic approaches that have the potential to rescue these deficits. These emerging data support the development of novel glutamatergic drug candidates as compelling approaches for treating AD.

Assessing Sex-Specific Circadian, Metabolic, and Cognitive Phenotypes in the AβPP/PS1 and APPNL-F/NL-F Models of Alzheimer's Disease

BACKGROUND

Circadian disruption has long been recognized as a symptom of Alzheimer's disease (AD); however, emerging data suggests that circadian dysfunction occurs early on in disease development, potentially preceding any noticeable cognitive deficits.

OBJECTIVE

This study compares the onset of AD in male and female wild type (C57BL6/J), transgenic (AβPP/PS1), and knock-in (APPNL-F/NL-F) AD mouse models from the period of plaque initiation (6 months) through 12 months.

METHODS

Rhythmic daily activity patterns, glucose sensitivity, cognitive function (Morris water maze, MWM), and AD pathology (plaques formation) were assessed. A comparison was made across sexes.

RESULTS

Sex-dependent hyperactivity in AβPP/PS1 mice was observed. In comparison to C57BL/6J animals, 6-month-old male AβPP/PS1 demonstrated nighttime hyperactivity, as did 12-month-old females. Female AβPP/PS1 animals performed significantly worse on a MWM task than AβPP/PS1 males at 12 months and trended toward increased plaque pathology. APPNL-F/NL-F 12-month-old males performed significantly worse on the MWM task compared to 12-month-old females. Significantly greater plaque pathology occurred in AβPP/PS1 animals as compared to APPNL-F/NL-F animals. Female AβPP/PS1 animals performed significantly worse than APPNL-F/NL-F animals in spatial learning and memory tasks, though this was reversed in males.

CONCLUSION

Taken together, this study provides novel insights into baseline sex differences, as well as characterizes baseline diurnal activity variations, in the AβPP/PS1 and APPNL-F/NL-F AD mouse models.

Hippocampal hyperglutamatergic signaling matters: Early targeting glutamate neurotransmission as a preventive strategy in Alzheimer's disease: An Editorial Highlight for "Riluzole attenuates glutamatergic tone and cognitive decline in AβPP/PS1 mice" on page 513

This Editorial highlights a remarkable study in the current issue of the Journal of Neurochemistry in which Hascup and coworkers provide novel data showing that riluzole, an anti-glutamatergic drug, may be a promising early intervention strategy for Alzheimer's disease (AD), aimed at restoring glutamate neurotransmission prior to amyloid beta (Aβ) plaque accumulation and cognitive decline. The mice APP/PS1, a model of AD, initially are cognitively normal but have elevated glutamate release in the hippocampus at 2-4 months of age. They begin showing cognitive decline and Aβ plaque accumulation at approximately 6-8 months of age, and show obvious AD neuropathology and cognitive impairment at 10-12 months. The riluzole treatment over 4 months (at 2-6 months of age) targeting early changes in glutamatergic neurotransmission prevents cognitive decline observed at 12 months of age and restores glutamatergic neurotransmission. This is one of the most convincing preclinical evidence supporting the idea of targeting glutamate neurotransmission in patients at risk for AD and to use riluzole for this purpose.