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Schneider C, James K, Craig BW, Chappell DE, Vaala W, van Harreveld PD, Wright CA, Barnum S, Pusterla N. Characterization of Equine Rhinitis B Virus Infection in Clinically Ill Horses in the United States during the Period 2012-2023. Pathogens 2023; 12:1324. [PMID: 38003789 PMCID: PMC10674924 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens12111324] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/20/2023] [Revised: 10/27/2023] [Accepted: 11/01/2023] [Indexed: 11/26/2023] Open
Abstract
Equine rhinitis B virus is a lesser-known equine respiratory pathogen that is being detected with increasing frequency via a voluntary upper respiratory biosurveillance program in the United States. This program received 8684 nasal swab submissions during the years 2012-2023. The nasal swabs were submitted for qPCR testing for six common upper respiratory pathogens: Streptococcus equi subspecies equi (S. equi), equine influenza virus (EIV), equine herpesvirus type 1 (EHV-1), equine herpesvirus type 4 (EHV-4), equine rhinitis A virus (ERAV), and equine rhinitis B virus (ERBV). The overall ERBV qPCR-positivity rate was 5.08% (441/8684). ERBV was detected as a single pathogen in 291 cases (65.99% of positives, 291/441) and was detected as a coinfection with at least one other respiratory pathogen in 150 cases (34.01%, 150/441). Young horses, less than a year of age, with acute onset of fever and respiratory signs and horses used for competition are more likely to test qPCR-positive for ERBV. Horses with ERBV may present with fever, nasal discharge, ocular discharge, and/or cough. Coinfection is a common feature of ERBV infection and S. equi, EHV-4 and EIV were the most common pathogens coinfected with ERBV. This report provides important information regarding the clinical relevance of ERBV in the horse and begins investigating the impact of coinfection on clinical disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chrissie Schneider
- Merck Animal Health, Rahway, NJ 07065, USA (B.W.C.); (D.E.C.); (W.V.); (P.D.v.H.); (C.A.W.)
| | - Kaitlyn James
- Merck Animal Health, Rahway, NJ 07065, USA (B.W.C.); (D.E.C.); (W.V.); (P.D.v.H.); (C.A.W.)
| | - Bryant W. Craig
- Merck Animal Health, Rahway, NJ 07065, USA (B.W.C.); (D.E.C.); (W.V.); (P.D.v.H.); (C.A.W.)
| | - Duane E. Chappell
- Merck Animal Health, Rahway, NJ 07065, USA (B.W.C.); (D.E.C.); (W.V.); (P.D.v.H.); (C.A.W.)
| | - Wendy Vaala
- Merck Animal Health, Rahway, NJ 07065, USA (B.W.C.); (D.E.C.); (W.V.); (P.D.v.H.); (C.A.W.)
| | | | - Cara A. Wright
- Merck Animal Health, Rahway, NJ 07065, USA (B.W.C.); (D.E.C.); (W.V.); (P.D.v.H.); (C.A.W.)
| | - Samantha Barnum
- Department of Medicine and Epidemiology, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, CA 95616, USA (N.P.)
| | - Nicola Pusterla
- Department of Medicine and Epidemiology, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, CA 95616, USA (N.P.)
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Lim SI, Kim MJ, Kim MJ, Lee SK, Yang HS, Kwon M, Lim EH, Ouh IO, Kim EJ, Hyun BH, Lee YH. Assessment of Equine Influenza Virus Status in the Republic of Korea from 2020 to 2022. Viruses 2023; 15:2135. [PMID: 37896912 PMCID: PMC10612032 DOI: 10.3390/v15102135] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/11/2023] [Revised: 10/17/2023] [Accepted: 10/18/2023] [Indexed: 10/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Equine influenza virus (EIV) causes acute respiratory disease in horses and belongs to the influenza A virus family Orthomyxoviridae, genus Orthomyxovirus. This virus may have severe financial implications for the horse industry owing to its highly contagious nature and rapid transmission. In the Republic of Korea, vaccination against EIV has been practiced with the active involvement of the Korea Racing Authority since 1974. In this study, we monitored the viral RNA for EIV using PCR, as well as the antibody levels against 'A/equine/South Africa/4/03 (H3N8, clade 1)', from 2020 to 2022. EIV was not detected using RT-PCR. The seropositivity rates detected using a hemagglutination inhibition assay were 90.3% in 2020, 96.7% in 2021, and 91.8% in 2022. The geometric mean of antibody titer (GMT) was 83.4 in 2020, 135.7 in 2021, and 95.6 in 2022. Yearlings and two-year-olds in training exhibited lower positive rates (59.1% in 2020, 38.9% in 2021, and 44.1% in 2022) than the average. These younger horses may require more attention for vaccination and vaccine responses against EIV. Continuous surveillance of EIV should be performed to monitor the prevalence and spread of this disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Seong-In Lim
- Viral Disease Division, Animal and Plant Quarantine Agency, Gimcheon 39660, Republic of Korea; (S.-I.L.); (M.J.K.); (M.-J.K.); (M.K.); (E.H.L.); (E.-J.K.); (B.-H.H.)
| | - Min Ji Kim
- Viral Disease Division, Animal and Plant Quarantine Agency, Gimcheon 39660, Republic of Korea; (S.-I.L.); (M.J.K.); (M.-J.K.); (M.K.); (E.H.L.); (E.-J.K.); (B.-H.H.)
| | - Min-Ji Kim
- Viral Disease Division, Animal and Plant Quarantine Agency, Gimcheon 39660, Republic of Korea; (S.-I.L.); (M.J.K.); (M.-J.K.); (M.K.); (E.H.L.); (E.-J.K.); (B.-H.H.)
| | - Sang-Kyu Lee
- Veterinary Center, Korea Racing Authority, Gwacheon 13822, Republic of Korea;
| | - Hyoung-Seok Yang
- Animal Health Diagnosis Division, Jeju Self-Governing Provincial Veterinary Research Institute, Jeju 63344, Republic of Korea;
| | - MiJung Kwon
- Viral Disease Division, Animal and Plant Quarantine Agency, Gimcheon 39660, Republic of Korea; (S.-I.L.); (M.J.K.); (M.-J.K.); (M.K.); (E.H.L.); (E.-J.K.); (B.-H.H.)
| | - Eui Hyeon Lim
- Viral Disease Division, Animal and Plant Quarantine Agency, Gimcheon 39660, Republic of Korea; (S.-I.L.); (M.J.K.); (M.-J.K.); (M.K.); (E.H.L.); (E.-J.K.); (B.-H.H.)
| | - In-Ohk Ouh
- Division of Vaccine Development Coordination, National Institute of Infectious Disease, Cheongju 28160, Republic of Korea;
| | - Eun-Jung Kim
- Viral Disease Division, Animal and Plant Quarantine Agency, Gimcheon 39660, Republic of Korea; (S.-I.L.); (M.J.K.); (M.-J.K.); (M.K.); (E.H.L.); (E.-J.K.); (B.-H.H.)
| | - Bang-Hun Hyun
- Viral Disease Division, Animal and Plant Quarantine Agency, Gimcheon 39660, Republic of Korea; (S.-I.L.); (M.J.K.); (M.-J.K.); (M.K.); (E.H.L.); (E.-J.K.); (B.-H.H.)
| | - Yoon-Hee Lee
- Viral Disease Division, Animal and Plant Quarantine Agency, Gimcheon 39660, Republic of Korea; (S.-I.L.); (M.J.K.); (M.-J.K.); (M.K.); (E.H.L.); (E.-J.K.); (B.-H.H.)
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Chappell DE, Barnett DC, James K, Craig B, Bain F, Gaughan E, Schneider C, Vaala W, Barnum SM, Pusterla N. Voluntary Surveillance Program for Equine Influenza Virus in the United States during 2008-2021. Pathogens 2023; 12:pathogens12020192. [PMID: 36839464 PMCID: PMC9961984 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens12020192] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/07/2022] [Revised: 01/06/2023] [Accepted: 01/21/2023] [Indexed: 01/31/2023] Open
Abstract
A voluntary upper respiratory biosurveillance program in the USA received 9740 nasal swab submissions during the years 2008-2021 from 333 veterinarians and veterinary clinics. The nasal swabs were submitted for qPCR testing for six common upper respiratory pathogens:equine influenza virus (EIV), equine herpesvirus-1 (EHV-1), equine herpesvirus-4 (EHV-4), Streptococcus equi subspecies equi (S. equi), equine rhinitis A virus (ERAV), and equine rhinitis B virus (ERBV). Additional testing was performed for equine gamma herpesvirus-2 (EHV-2) and equine gamma herpesvirus-5 (EHV-5) and the results are reported. Basic frequency statistics and multivariate logistic regression models were utilized to determine the associations between risk factors and EIV positivity. The EIV qPCR-positivity rate was 9.9%. Equids less than 9 years of age with a recent history of travel and seasonal occurrence in winter and spring were the most common population that were qPCR positive for EIV. This ongoing biosurveillance program emphasizes the need for molecular testing for pathogen identification, which is critical for decisions associated with therapeutics and biosecurity intervention for health management and vaccine evaluations and development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Duane E. Chappell
- Merck Animal Health, Madison, NJ 07940, USA
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +1-866-349-3497
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - Samantha M. Barnum
- Department of Medicine and Epidemiology, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, CA 95616, USA
| | - Nicola Pusterla
- Department of Medicine and Epidemiology, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, CA 95616, USA
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Gonzalez-Obando J, Forero JE, Zuluaga-Cabrera AM, Ruiz-Saenz J. Equine Influenza Virus: An Old Known Enemy in the Americas. Vaccines (Basel) 2022; 10:vaccines10101718. [PMID: 36298583 PMCID: PMC9610386 DOI: 10.3390/vaccines10101718] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/12/2022] [Revised: 10/08/2022] [Accepted: 10/11/2022] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Equine influenza is a highly contagious disease caused by the H3N8 equine influenza virus (EIV), which is endemically distributed throughout the world. It infects equids, and interspecies transmission to dogs has been reported. The H3N8 Florida lineage, which is divided into clades 1 and 2, is the most representative lineage in the Americas. The EIV infects the respiratory system, affecting the ciliated epithelial cells and preventing the elimination of foreign bodies and substances. Certain factors related to the disease, such as an outdated vaccination plan, age, training, and close contact with other animals, favor the presentation of equine influenza. This review focuses on the molecular, pathophysiological, and epidemiological characteristics of EIV in the Americas to present updated information to achieve prevention and control of the virus. We also discuss the need for monitoring the disease, the use of vaccines, and the appropriate application of those biologicals, among other biosecurity measures that are important for the control of the virus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juliana Gonzalez-Obando
- Grupo de Investigación en Ciencias Animales—GRICA, Facultad de Medicina Veterinaria y Zootecnia, Universidad Cooperativa de Colombia, Bucaramanga 680002, Colombia
| | - Jorge Eduardo Forero
- Grupo de Investigación en Microbiología Veterinaria, Escuela de Microbiología, Universidad de Antioquia, Medellín 050010, Colombia
| | - Angélica M Zuluaga-Cabrera
- Facultad de Medicina Veterinaria y Zootecnia, Fundación Universitaria Autónoma de las Américas, Circular 73 N°35-04, Medellín 050010, Colombia
| | - Julián Ruiz-Saenz
- Grupo de Investigación en Ciencias Animales—GRICA, Facultad de Medicina Veterinaria y Zootecnia, Universidad Cooperativa de Colombia, Bucaramanga 680002, Colombia
- Correspondence:
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Lee K, Pusterla N, Barnum SM, Lee DH, Martínez-López B. Investigation of cross-regional spread and evolution of equine influenza H3N8 at US and global scales using Bayesian phylogeography based on balanced subsampling. Transbound Emerg Dis 2022; 69:e1734-e1748. [PMID: 35263501 DOI: 10.1111/tbed.14509] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/29/2021] [Revised: 03/03/2022] [Accepted: 03/05/2022] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Equine influenza virus (EIV) is a highly contagious pathogen of equids, and a well-known burden in global equine health. EIV H3N8 variants seasonally emerged and resulted in EIV outbreaks in the United States (US) and worldwide. The present study evaluated the pattern of cross-regional EIV H3N8 spread and evolutionary characteristics at US and global scales using Bayesian phylogeography with balanced subsampling based on regional horse population size. A total of 297 Haemagglutinin (HA) sequences of global EIV H3N8 were collected from 1963 to 2019 and subsampled to global subset (n = 67), raw US sequences (n = 100) and US subset (n = 44) datasets. Discrete trait phylogeography analysis was used to estimate the transmission history of EIV using four global and US genome datasets. The North American lineage was the major source of globally dominant EIV variants and spread to other global regions. The US EIV strains generally spread from the southern and midwestern regions to other regions. The EIV H3N8 accumulated approximately three nucleotide substitutions per year in the HA gene under heterogenous local positive selection. Our findings will guide better decision making of target intervention strategies of EIV H3N8 infection and provide the better scheme of genomic surveillance in the US and global equine health. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kyuyoung Lee
- Center for Animal Disease Modeling and Surveillance (CADMS), Department of Medicine & Epidemiology, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, USA
| | - Nicola Pusterla
- Department of Medicine & Epidemiology, School Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, USA
| | - Samantha M Barnum
- Department of Medicine & Epidemiology, School Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, USA
| | - Dong-Hun Lee
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Konkuk University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Beatriz Martínez-López
- Center for Animal Disease Modeling and Surveillance (CADMS), Department of Medicine & Epidemiology, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, USA
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Lee K, Pusterla N, Barnum SM, Lee DH, Martínez-López B. Genome-informed characterisation of antigenic drift in the haemagglutinin gene of equine influenza strains circulating in the United States from 2012 to 2017. Transbound Emerg Dis 2021; 69:e52-e63. [PMID: 34331828 DOI: 10.1111/tbed.14262] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/04/2021] [Revised: 07/14/2021] [Accepted: 07/24/2021] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
Abstract
Equine influenza virus (EIV) is a major infectious pathogen causing significant respiratory signs in equids worldwide. Voluntary surveillances in the United States recently reported EIV detection in horses with respiratory signs even with adequate vaccine protocols and biosecurity programs and posed a concern about suboptimal effectiveness of EIV vaccine in the United States. This study aims to determine the genetic characteristics of 58 field EIV H3N8 strains in the United States from 2012 to 2017 using the phylogenetic analysis based on the haemagglutinin (HA) gene. Amino acid substitution and acquisition of N-glycosylation of the HA gene were also evaluated. Phylogenetic analysis identified that almost all US field strains belonged to the Florida clade 1 (FC1) except one Florida clade 2 strain from a horse imported in 2014. US EIV strains in 2017 shared 11 fixed amino acid substitutions in the HA gene, compared to the vaccine strain (A/equine/Ohio/2003), and two additional amino acid substitutions were detected in 2019. The introduction of foreign EIV strains into the United States was not detected, but antigenic drift without acquisition of N-glycosylation in the HA gene was observed in US field strains until 2017. Considering the global dominance of FC1 strains, subsequent antigenic drift of US EIV strains should be monitored for better effectiveness of the EIV vaccine in the United States and global equine industries.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kyuyoung Lee
- Center for Animal Disease Modeling and Surveillance (CADMS), Department of Medicine & Epidemiology, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, USA
| | - Nicola Pusterla
- Department of Medicine & Epidemiology, School Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, USA
| | - Samantha M Barnum
- Department of Medicine & Epidemiology, School Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, USA
| | - Dong-Hun Lee
- Department of Pathobiology and Veterinary Science, the University of Connecticut, Storrs, Connecticut, USA
| | - Beatriz Martínez-López
- Center for Animal Disease Modeling and Surveillance (CADMS), Department of Medicine & Epidemiology, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, USA
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Sreenivasan CC, Jandhyala SS, Luo S, Hause BM, Thomas M, Knudsen DEB, Leslie-Steen P, Clement T, Reedy SE, Chambers TM, Christopher-Hennings J, Nelson E, Wang D, Kaushik RS, Li F. Phylogenetic Analysis and Characterization of a Sporadic Isolate of Equine Influenza A H3N8 from an Unvaccinated Horse in 2015. Viruses 2018; 10:v10010031. [PMID: 29324680 PMCID: PMC5795444 DOI: 10.3390/v10010031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/26/2017] [Revised: 01/07/2018] [Accepted: 01/09/2018] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Equine influenza, caused by the H3N8 subtype, is a highly contagious respiratory disease affecting equid populations worldwide and has led to serious epidemics and transboundary pandemics. This study describes the phylogenetic characterization and replication kinetics of recently-isolated H3N8 virus from a nasal swab obtained from a sporadic case of natural infection in an unvaccinated horse from Montana, USA. The nasal swab tested positive for equine influenza by Real-Time Quantitative Reverse Transcription Polymerase Chain Reaction (RT-PCR). Further, the whole genome sequencing of the virus confirmed that it was the H3N8 subtype and was designated as A/equine/Montana/9564-1/2015 (H3N8). A BLASTn search revealed that the polymerase basic protein 1 (PB1), polymerase acidic (PA), hemagglutinin (HA), nucleoprotein (NP), and matrix (M) segments of this H3N8 isolate shared the highest percentage identity to A/equine/Tennessee/29A/2014 (H3N8) and the polymerase basic protein 2 (PB2), neuraminidase (NA), and non-structural protein (NS) segments to A/equine/Malaysia/M201/2015 (H3N8). Phylogenetic characterization of individual gene segments, using currently available H3N8 viral genomes, of both equine and canine origin, further established that A/equine/Montana/9564-1/2015 belonged to the Florida Clade 1 viruses. Interestingly, replication kinetics of this H3N8 virus, using airway derived primary cells from multiple species, such as equine, swine, bovine, and human lung epithelial cells, demonstrated appreciable titers, when compared to Madin-Darby canine kidney epithelial cells. These findings indicate the broad host spectrum of this virus isolate and suggest the potential for cross-species transmissibility.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chithra C. Sreenivasan
- Department of Biology and Microbiology, South Dakota State University, Brookings, SD 57007, USA; (C.C.S.); (S.S.J.); (S.L.); (D.W.); (R.S.K.)
| | - Sunayana S. Jandhyala
- Department of Biology and Microbiology, South Dakota State University, Brookings, SD 57007, USA; (C.C.S.); (S.S.J.); (S.L.); (D.W.); (R.S.K.)
| | - Sisi Luo
- Department of Biology and Microbiology, South Dakota State University, Brookings, SD 57007, USA; (C.C.S.); (S.S.J.); (S.L.); (D.W.); (R.S.K.)
| | - Ben M. Hause
- Cambridge Technologies, Oxford Street Worthington, MN 56187, USA;
| | - Milton Thomas
- Department of Veterinary and Biomedical Sciences, South Dakota State University, Brookings, SD 57007, USA; (M.T.); (D.E.B.K.); (P.L.-S.); (T.C.); (J.C.-H.); (E.N.)
| | - David E. B. Knudsen
- Department of Veterinary and Biomedical Sciences, South Dakota State University, Brookings, SD 57007, USA; (M.T.); (D.E.B.K.); (P.L.-S.); (T.C.); (J.C.-H.); (E.N.)
| | - Pamela Leslie-Steen
- Department of Veterinary and Biomedical Sciences, South Dakota State University, Brookings, SD 57007, USA; (M.T.); (D.E.B.K.); (P.L.-S.); (T.C.); (J.C.-H.); (E.N.)
| | - Travis Clement
- Department of Veterinary and Biomedical Sciences, South Dakota State University, Brookings, SD 57007, USA; (M.T.); (D.E.B.K.); (P.L.-S.); (T.C.); (J.C.-H.); (E.N.)
| | - Stephanie E. Reedy
- Gluck Equine Research Center, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY 40546, USA; (S.E.R.); (T.M.C.)
| | - Thomas M. Chambers
- Gluck Equine Research Center, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY 40546, USA; (S.E.R.); (T.M.C.)
| | - Jane Christopher-Hennings
- Department of Veterinary and Biomedical Sciences, South Dakota State University, Brookings, SD 57007, USA; (M.T.); (D.E.B.K.); (P.L.-S.); (T.C.); (J.C.-H.); (E.N.)
| | - Eric Nelson
- Department of Veterinary and Biomedical Sciences, South Dakota State University, Brookings, SD 57007, USA; (M.T.); (D.E.B.K.); (P.L.-S.); (T.C.); (J.C.-H.); (E.N.)
| | - Dan Wang
- Department of Biology and Microbiology, South Dakota State University, Brookings, SD 57007, USA; (C.C.S.); (S.S.J.); (S.L.); (D.W.); (R.S.K.)
- BioSNTR, Brookings, SD 57007, USA
| | - Radhey S. Kaushik
- Department of Biology and Microbiology, South Dakota State University, Brookings, SD 57007, USA; (C.C.S.); (S.S.J.); (S.L.); (D.W.); (R.S.K.)
- Department of Veterinary and Biomedical Sciences, South Dakota State University, Brookings, SD 57007, USA; (M.T.); (D.E.B.K.); (P.L.-S.); (T.C.); (J.C.-H.); (E.N.)
| | - Feng Li
- Department of Biology and Microbiology, South Dakota State University, Brookings, SD 57007, USA; (C.C.S.); (S.S.J.); (S.L.); (D.W.); (R.S.K.)
- Department of Veterinary and Biomedical Sciences, South Dakota State University, Brookings, SD 57007, USA; (M.T.); (D.E.B.K.); (P.L.-S.); (T.C.); (J.C.-H.); (E.N.)
- BioSNTR, Brookings, SD 57007, USA
- Correspondence:
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Pusterla N, Bain F, James K, Mapes S, Kenelty K, Barnett DC, Gaughan E, Craig B, Chappell DE, Vaala W. Frequency of molecular detection of equine herpesvirus-4 in nasal secretions of 3028 horses with upper airway infection. Vet Rec 2017; 180:593. [DOI: 10.1136/vr.104240] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 03/16/2017] [Indexed: 11/04/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- N. Pusterla
- Department of Medicine and Epidemiology; School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California; Davis California USA
| | - F. Bain
- Merck Animal Health; Summit, New Jersey USA
| | - K. James
- Department of Medicine and Epidemiology; School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California; Davis California USA
| | - S. Mapes
- Department of Medicine and Epidemiology; School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California; Davis California USA
| | - K. Kenelty
- Department of Medicine and Epidemiology; School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California; Davis California USA
| | | | - E. Gaughan
- Merck Animal Health; Summit, New Jersey USA
| | - B. Craig
- Merck Animal Health; Summit, New Jersey USA
| | | | - W. Vaala
- Merck Animal Health; Summit, New Jersey USA
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