1
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Sayanthi Y, Susanna D. Pathogenic Leptospira contamination in the environment: a systematic review. Infect Ecol Epidemiol 2024; 14:2324820. [PMID: 38511199 PMCID: PMC10953783 DOI: 10.1080/20008686.2024.2324820] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/21/2021] [Accepted: 02/26/2024] [Indexed: 03/22/2024] Open
Abstract
Background The pathogenic Leptospira is maintained in renal tubules of certain animals, mostly rodents, and excreted in the urine which can contaminate the environment. It is necessary to detect pathogenic Leptospira in environmental samples. Knowing the survival of Leptospira in the environment (water and soil) can provide an overview of where and how they can be transmitted to humans. Objective Therefore, this study aimed to provide a systematic overview of pathogenic Leptospira presence in water and soil environment, the various species of pathogenic Leptospira that are harmful for human, and the ability to survive using a systematic review method. Methods The search process used four databases: PubMed, Science Direct, Scopus, and ProQuest. Furthermore, the articles sought were published from 2000 to July 2021, and 38 were analysed. Results The pathogenic Leptospira contamination in water was higher in urban areas, while soil samples were higher in rural areas. Various pathogenic Leptospira detected in the environment were L. alstonii, L. kmetyi, L. noguchii, and L. interrogans. Those pathogenic Leptospira can survive in water at 4-30°C and at pH < 7; in soil, it can survive at a humidity of < 20% and a pH < 6. Conclusion Urban and rural areas have the same risk for leptospirosis disease because pathogenic Leptospira (P1).
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Affiliation(s)
- Yulia Sayanthi
- Postgraduate Program in Public Health, Faculty of Public Health, Universitas Indonesia, Depok, Indonesia
- Department of Training-Services, PT. Immarez Solusi Utama Consultant - Training – Services, Serang, Banten, Indonesia
| | - Dewi Susanna
- Department of Environmental Health, Faculty of Public Health, Universitas Indonesia, Depok, Indonesia
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2
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Dos Santos Ribeiro P, Carvalho NB, Aburjaile F, Sousa T, Veríssimo G, Gomes T, Neves F, Blanco L, Lima JA, de Oliveira D, Jaiswal AK, Brenig B, Soares S, Ramos R, Matiuzzi M, Góes-Neto A, Figueira CP, Costa F, Ristow P, Azevedo V. Environmental Biofilms from an Urban Community in Salvador, Brazil, Shelter Previously Uncharacterized Saprophytic Leptospira. MICROBIAL ECOLOGY 2023; 86:2488-2501. [PMID: 37326636 DOI: 10.1007/s00248-023-02253-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/08/2023] [Accepted: 06/04/2023] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
Biofilms are complex microecosystems with valuable ecological roles that can shelter a variety of microorganisms. Spirochetes from the genus Leptospira have been observed to form biofilms in vitro, in rural environments, and in the kidneys of reservoir rats. The genus Leptospira is composed of pathogenic and non-pathogenic species, and the description of new species is ongoing due to the advent of whole genome sequencing. Leptospires have increasingly been isolated from water and soil samples. To investigate the presence of Leptospira in environmental biofilms, we collected three distinct samples of biofilms formed in an urban setting with poor sanitation: Pau da Lima, in Salvador, Bahia, Brazil. All biofilm samples were negative for the presence of pathogenic leptospires via conventional PCR, but cultures containing saprophytic Leptospira were identified. Whole genomes were generated and analyzed for twenty isolates obtained from these biofilms. For species identification, we used digital DNA-DNA hybridization (dDDH) and average nucleotide identity (ANI) analysis. The obtained isolates were classified into seven presumptive species from the saprophytic S1 clade. ANI and dDDH analysis suggest that three of those seven species were new. Classical phenotypic tests confirmed the novel isolated bacteria as saprophytic Leptospira. The isolates presented typical morphology and ultrastructure according to scanning electron microscopy and formed biofilms under in vitro conditions. Our data indicate that a diversity of saprophytic Leptospira species survive in the Brazilian poorly sanitized urban environment, in a biofilm lifestyle. We believe our results contribute to a better understanding of Leptospira biology and ecology, considering biofilms as natural environmental reservoirs for leptospires.
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Affiliation(s)
- Priscyla Dos Santos Ribeiro
- Laboratory of Cellular and Molecular Genetics, Institute of Biological Sciences, Federal University of Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, Brazil
- Laboratory of Bacteriology and Health, Institute of Biology, Federal University of Bahia, Salvador, Bahia, Brazil
- National Institute of Science and Technology in Interdisciplinary and Transdisciplinary Studies in Ecology and Evolution (INCT IN-TREE), Institute of Biology, Federal University of Bahia, Salvador, Bahia, Brazil
| | - Natália Barbosa Carvalho
- Laboratory of Bacteriology and Health, Institute of Biology, Federal University of Bahia, Salvador, Bahia, Brazil
- National Institute of Science and Technology in Interdisciplinary and Transdisciplinary Studies in Ecology and Evolution (INCT IN-TREE), Institute of Biology, Federal University of Bahia, Salvador, Bahia, Brazil
| | - Flávia Aburjaile
- Department of Preventive Veterinary Medicine, Veterinary School, Federal University of Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, Brazil
| | - Thiago Sousa
- Laboratory of Cellular and Molecular Genetics, Institute of Biological Sciences, Federal University of Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, Brazil
| | - Graciete Veríssimo
- Laboratory of Bacteriology and Health, Institute of Biology, Federal University of Bahia, Salvador, Bahia, Brazil
| | - Talita Gomes
- Laboratory of Cellular and Molecular Genetics, Institute of Biological Sciences, Federal University of Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, Brazil
- Laboratory of Bacteriology and Health, Institute of Biology, Federal University of Bahia, Salvador, Bahia, Brazil
- National Institute of Science and Technology in Interdisciplinary and Transdisciplinary Studies in Ecology and Evolution (INCT IN-TREE), Institute of Biology, Federal University of Bahia, Salvador, Bahia, Brazil
| | - Fábio Neves
- Institute of Collective Health, Federal University of Bahia, Salvador, Bahia, Brazil
| | - Luiza Blanco
- Laboratory of Bacteriology and Health, Institute of Biology, Federal University of Bahia, Salvador, Bahia, Brazil
| | - João Antonio Lima
- Laboratory of Bacteriology and Health, Institute of Biology, Federal University of Bahia, Salvador, Bahia, Brazil
| | - Daiana de Oliveira
- Institute of Collective Health, Federal University of Bahia, Salvador, Bahia, Brazil
- Gonçalo Moniz Institute, Oswaldo Cruz Foundation (FIOCRUZ), Salvador, Bahia, Brazil
| | - Arun Kumar Jaiswal
- Laboratory of Cellular and Molecular Genetics, Institute of Biological Sciences, Federal University of Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, Brazil
| | - Bertram Brenig
- Institute of Veterinary Medicine, Burckhardt Weg, University of Göttingen, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Siomar Soares
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Parasitology, Institute of Biological and Natural Sciences, Federal University of Triângulo Mineiro, Uberaba, Minas Gerais, Brazil
| | - Rommel Ramos
- Center of Genomics and Systems Biology, Institute of Biological Sciences, Federal University of Pará, Belém, Brazil
| | - Mateus Matiuzzi
- Federal University of Vale Do São Francisco, Petrolina, Pernambuco, Brazil
| | - Aristóteles Góes-Neto
- Department of Microbiology, Institute of Biological Sciences, Federal University of Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, Brazil
| | | | - Federico Costa
- Institute of Collective Health, Federal University of Bahia, Salvador, Bahia, Brazil
- Gonçalo Moniz Institute, Oswaldo Cruz Foundation (FIOCRUZ), Salvador, Bahia, Brazil
- Department of Epidemiology of Microbial Diseases, Yale School of Public Health, New Haven, USA
- Lancaster Medical School, Lancaster University, Lancaster, LA1 4YW, UK
| | - Paula Ristow
- Laboratory of Bacteriology and Health, Institute of Biology, Federal University of Bahia, Salvador, Bahia, Brazil.
- National Institute of Science and Technology in Interdisciplinary and Transdisciplinary Studies in Ecology and Evolution (INCT IN-TREE), Institute of Biology, Federal University of Bahia, Salvador, Bahia, Brazil.
- Gonçalo Moniz Institute, Oswaldo Cruz Foundation (FIOCRUZ), Salvador, Bahia, Brazil.
| | - Vasco Azevedo
- Laboratory of Cellular and Molecular Genetics, Institute of Biological Sciences, Federal University of Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, Brazil.
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3
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Bradley EA, Lockaby G. Leptospirosis and the Environment: A Review and Future Directions. Pathogens 2023; 12:1167. [PMID: 37764975 PMCID: PMC10538202 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens12091167] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/24/2023] [Revised: 08/31/2023] [Accepted: 09/13/2023] [Indexed: 09/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Leptospirosis is a zoonotic disease of global importance with significant morbidity and mortality. However, the disease is frequently overlooked and underdiagnosed, leading to uncertainty of the true scale and severity of the disease. A neglected tropical disease, leptospirosis disproportionately impacts disadvantaged socioeconomic communities most vulnerable to outbreaks of zoonotic disease, due to contact with infectious animals and contaminated soils and waters. With growing evidence that Leptospira survives, persists, and reproduces in the environment, this paper reviews the current understanding of the pathogen in the environment and highlights the unknowns that are most important for future study. Through a systematic Boolean review of the literature, our study finds that detailed field-based study of Leptospira prevalence, survival, and transmission in natural waters and soils is lacking from the current literature. This review identified a strong need for assessment of physical characteristics and biogeochemical processes that support long-term viability of Leptospira in the environment followed by epidemiological assessment of the transmission and movement of the same strains of Leptospira in the present wildlife and livestock as the first steps in improving our understanding of the environmental stage of the leptospirosis transmission cycle.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elizabeth A. Bradley
- College of Forestry, Wildlife, and Environment, Auburn University, Auburn, AL 36849, USA
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4
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Huete SG, Benaroudj N. The Arsenal of Leptospira Species against Oxidants. Antioxidants (Basel) 2023; 12:1273. [PMID: 37372003 DOI: 10.3390/antiox12061273] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/14/2023] [Revised: 06/01/2023] [Accepted: 06/08/2023] [Indexed: 06/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Reactive oxygen species (ROS) are byproducts of oxygen metabolism produced by virtually all organisms living in an oxic environment. ROS are also produced by phagocytic cells in response to microorganism invasion. These highly reactive molecules can damage cellular constituents (proteins, DNA, and lipids) and exhibit antimicrobial activities when present in sufficient amount. Consequently, microorganisms have evolved defense mechanisms to counteract ROS-induced oxidative damage. Leptospira are diderm bacteria form the Spirochaetes phylum. This genus is diverse, encompassing both free-living non-pathogenic bacteria as well as pathogenic species responsible for leptospirosis, a widespread zoonotic disease. All leptospires are exposed to ROS in the environment, but only pathogenic species are well-equipped to sustain the oxidative stress encountered inside their hosts during infection. Importantly, this ability plays a pivotal role in Leptospira virulence. In this review, we describe the ROS encountered by Leptospira in their different ecological niches and outline the repertoire of defense mechanisms identified so far in these bacteria to scavenge deadly ROS. We also review the mechanisms controlling the expression of these antioxidants systems and recent advances in understanding the contribution of Peroxide Stress Regulators in Leptospira adaptation to oxidative stress.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samuel G Huete
- Institut Pasteur, Université Paris Cité, Biologie des Spirochètes, CNRS UMR 6047, F-75015 Paris, France
| | - Nadia Benaroudj
- Institut Pasteur, Université Paris Cité, Biologie des Spirochètes, CNRS UMR 6047, F-75015 Paris, France
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5
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Rezende Mires de Carvalho R, Silva Dias C, Nogueira Paz L, Melo de Lima Fires T, Pereira Figueira C, Araújo Damasceno K, Hanzen Pinna M. Biofilm formation in vitro by Leptospira interrogans strains isolated from naturally infected dogs and their role in antimicrobial resistance. Heliyon 2023; 9:e13802. [PMID: 36873470 PMCID: PMC9976318 DOI: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2023.e13802] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/22/2022] [Revised: 02/08/2023] [Accepted: 02/13/2023] [Indexed: 02/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Leptospira interrogans is a biofilm-forming pathogen, however, there are few data involving Brazilian strains isolated from dogs and their antimicrobial sensitivity in planktonic and biofilm forms. The potential for biofilm formation and antimicrobial resistance in naturally infected dogs is a fundamental approach towards disease epidemiology and the establishment of consistent prophylaxis and control measures. The objective of this study was to evaluate in vitro biofilm formation of a reference strain (L. interrogans, sv. Copenhageni L1 130 - L20) and of L. interrogans isolated from dogs (C20, C29, C51, C82), with subsequent evaluation of antimicrobial susceptibility in planktonic and biofilm forms. The semi quantification of biofilm production revealed a dynamic process of development over time, with mature biofilm formation early on the seventh day of incubation. All strains were efficient for in vitro biofilm formation and, in this form, they were considerably more resistant compared to their planktonic form, with MIC90 of 1600 μg/mL for amoxicillin, 800 μg/mL for ampicillin, and >1600 μg/mL for doxycycline and ciprofloxacin. The strains studies were isolated on naturally infected dogs that might act as reservoirs and sentinels for human infections. The potential to antimicrobial resistance together with the close relation between dogs and humans indicates the need for greater actions on disease control and surveillance. Moreover, biofilm formation may contribute to the persistence of Leptospira interrogans in the host and these animals can act as chronic carriers, disseminating the agent in the environment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rodrigo Rezende Mires de Carvalho
- Bacterial Disease Laboratory, Postgraduate Program in Animal Science in Tropics - Federal University of Bahia, Salvador, Bahia, Brazil
| | - Carla Silva Dias
- Bacterial Disease Laboratory, Postgraduate Program in Animal Science in Tropics - Federal University of Bahia, Salvador, Bahia, Brazil
| | - Lucas Nogueira Paz
- Bacterial Disease Laboratory, Postgraduate Program in Animal Science in Tropics - Federal University of Bahia, Salvador, Bahia, Brazil
| | - Thainá Melo de Lima Fires
- Postgraduate Program in Clinic and Surgery of Domestic Carnivores - Federal University of Bahia, Salvador, Bahia, Brazil
| | | | - Karine Araújo Damasceno
- Laboratory of Experimental Pathology, Gonçalo Moniz Institute, Oswaldo Cruz Foundation, Salvador, Bahia, Brazil
| | - Melissa Hanzen Pinna
- Bacterial Disease Laboratory, Postgraduate Program in Animal Science in Tropics - Federal University of Bahia, Salvador, Bahia, Brazil
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6
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Meganathan Y, Vishwakarma A, Mohandass R. Biofilm formation and social interaction of Leptospira in natural and artificial environments. Res Microbiol 2022; 173:103981. [PMID: 35926730 DOI: 10.1016/j.resmic.2022.103981] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/06/2022] [Revised: 07/19/2022] [Accepted: 07/20/2022] [Indexed: 10/16/2022]
Abstract
In the recent decades, there has been increased interest in the study on social interactions of pathogenic bacteria and biofilm-forming microbes. Leptospira is a zoonotic pathogen that causes human leptospirosis. Biofilm formation by pathogenic and saprophytic Leptospira has been documented in various biotic and abiotic environments. Biofilm supports cell growth and protects them from a variety of environmental stress. Pathogenic bacterial biofilm might increase the virulence and pathogenesis. However, research on the social behaviour and biofilm production by Leptospira is limited. This review discusses the interplay between the different species in the biofilm formation of saprophytic and pathogenic Leptospira and potential future applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yogesan Meganathan
- Molecular Genetics Laboratory, Department of Genetic Engineering, SRM Institute of Science and Technology, Kattankulathur 603203, Chengalapattu, TN, India
| | - Archana Vishwakarma
- Molecular Genetics Laboratory, Department of Genetic Engineering, SRM Institute of Science and Technology, Kattankulathur 603203, Chengalapattu, TN, India
| | - Ramya Mohandass
- Molecular Genetics Laboratory, Department of Genetic Engineering, SRM Institute of Science and Technology, Kattankulathur 603203, Chengalapattu, TN, India.
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7
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Sykes JE, Haake DA, Gamage CD, Mills WZ, Nally JE. A global one health perspective on leptospirosis in humans and animals. J Am Vet Med Assoc 2022; 260:1589-1596. [PMID: 35895801 DOI: 10.2460/javma.22.06.0258] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Leptospirosis is a quintessential one health disease of humans and animals caused by pathogenic spirochetes of the genus Leptospira. Intra- and interspecies transmission is dependent on 1) reservoir host animals in which organisms replicate and are shed in urine over long periods of time, 2) the persistence of spirochetes in the environment, and 3) subsequent human-animal-environmental interactions. The combination of increased flooding events due to climate change, changes in human-animal-environmental interactions as a result of the pandemic that favor a rise in the incidence of leptospirosis, and under-recognition of leptospirosis because of nonspecific clinical signs and severe signs that resemble COVID-19 represents a "perfect storm" for resurgence of leptospirosis in people and domestic animals. Although often considered a disease that occurs in warm, humid climates with high annual rainfall, pathogenic Leptospira spp have recently been associated with disease in animals and humans that reside in semiarid regions like the southwestern US and have impacted humans that have a wide spectrum of socioeconomic backgrounds. Therefore, it is critical that physicians, veterinarians, and public health experts maintain a high index of suspicion for the disease regardless of geographic and socioeconomic circumstances and work together to understand outbreaks and implement appropriate control measures. Over the last decade, major strides have been made in our understanding of the disease because of improvements in diagnostic tests, molecular epidemiologic tools, educational efforts on preventive measures, and vaccines. These novel approaches are highlighted in the companion Currents in One Health by Sykes et al, AJVR, September 2022.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jane E Sykes
- 1Department of Medicine and Epidemiology, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California-Davis, Davis, CA
| | - David A Haake
- 2VA Greater Los Angeles Healthcare System, Los Angeles, CA.,3David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California-Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA
| | - Chandika D Gamage
- 4Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Peradeniya, Peradeniya, Sri Lanka
| | | | - Jarlath E Nally
- 6National Animal Disease Center, Agriculture Research Service, USDA, Ames, IA
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8
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Wollanke B, Gerhards H, Ackermann K. Infectious Uveitis in Horses and New Insights in Its Leptospiral Biofilm-Related Pathogenesis. Microorganisms 2022; 10:387. [PMID: 35208842 PMCID: PMC8875353 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms10020387] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/31/2021] [Revised: 02/01/2022] [Accepted: 02/03/2022] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Uveitis is a sight-threatening eye disease in equids known worldwide that leads to considerable pain and suffering. By far the most common type of uveitis in Germany and neighboring countries is classical equine recurrent uveitis (ERU), which is caused by chronic intraocular leptospiral infection and is the main cause of infectious uveitis in horses. Other infectious causes are extremely rare and are usually clinically distinguishable from ERU. ERU can be treated very effectively by vitreous cavity lavage (vitrectomy). For proper indications of this demanding surgery, it is necessary to differentiate ERU from other types of uveitis in which vitrectomy is not helpful. This can be conducted on the basis of anamnesis in combination with ophthalmologic findings and by aqueous humor examination. During vitrectomy, vitreous material is obtained. These vitreous samples have historically been used for numerous etiologic studies. In this way, a chronic intraocular leptospiral infection has been shown to be the cause of typical ERU and, among other findings, ERU has also been recognized as a biofilm infection, providing new insights into the pathogenesis of ERU and explaining some thus far unexplainable phenomena of ERU. ERU may not only have transmissible aspects to some types of uveitis in humans but may also serve as a model for a spontaneously occurring biofilm infection. Vitreous material obtained during therapeutically indicated vitrectomy can be used for further studies on in vivo biofilm formation, biofilm composition and possible therapeutic approaches.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bettina Wollanke
- Equine Clinic, Ludwig-Maximilians-University, 80539 Munich, Germany; (H.G.); (K.A.)
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9
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Ackermann K, Kenngott R, Settles M, Gerhards H, Maierl J, Wollanke B. In Vivo Biofilm Formation of Pathogenic Leptospira spp. in the Vitreous Humor of Horses with Recurrent Uveitis. Microorganisms 2021; 9:microorganisms9091915. [PMID: 34576809 PMCID: PMC8464839 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms9091915] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/13/2021] [Revised: 09/01/2021] [Accepted: 09/08/2021] [Indexed: 01/10/2023] Open
Abstract
Equine recurrent uveitis (ERU) causes painful inflammatory attacks and oftentimes blindness in the affected eyes. The disease is considered a late sequela of systemic leptospirosis. The most effective therapy is the surgical removal of the vitreous (vitrectomy), which is not only therapeutic, but provides vitreous material that can be assessed diagnostically. For example, the lipL32 gene, culturable Leptospira spp., and anti-Leptospira antibodies have all been detected in vitreous samples obtained from eyes with chronic ERU. Despite this clear evidence of leptospiral involvement, the systemic administration of antibiotics in infected horses is ineffective at resolving ERU. This syndrome of chronic recurrent inflammation, which is unresponsive to antibiotic therapy, combined with apparent bacteria evading the immune response, is consistent with a biofilm-associated infection. The purpose of this study, therefore, was to detect the in vivo biofilm formation of Leptospira spp. in vitreous samples collected during vitrectomy and examined using a Warthin-Starry silver stain and immunohistochemistry. All known steps of biofilm formation were visualized in these samples, including individual Leptospira spp., leptospiral microcolonies and dense roundish accumulations of Leptospira spp. In many instances spirochetes were surrounded by an extracellular substance. Taken together, data from the present study show that ERU is a biofilm-associated intraocular leptospiral infection, which best explains the typical clinical course.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kerstin Ackermann
- Equine Clinic, Clinical Department, Ludwig-Maximilians-University, 80539 Munich, Germany
- Correspondence: (K.A.); (R.K.); (H.G.); (B.W.)
| | - Rebecca Kenngott
- Institute for Anatomy, Histology and Embryology, Department of Veterinary Science, Ludwig-Maximilians-University, 80539 Munich, Germany; (M.S.); (J.M.)
- Correspondence: (K.A.); (R.K.); (H.G.); (B.W.)
| | - Monica Settles
- Institute for Anatomy, Histology and Embryology, Department of Veterinary Science, Ludwig-Maximilians-University, 80539 Munich, Germany; (M.S.); (J.M.)
| | - Hartmut Gerhards
- Equine Clinic, Clinical Department, Ludwig-Maximilians-University, 80539 Munich, Germany
- Correspondence: (K.A.); (R.K.); (H.G.); (B.W.)
| | - Johann Maierl
- Institute for Anatomy, Histology and Embryology, Department of Veterinary Science, Ludwig-Maximilians-University, 80539 Munich, Germany; (M.S.); (J.M.)
| | - Bettina Wollanke
- Equine Clinic, Clinical Department, Ludwig-Maximilians-University, 80539 Munich, Germany
- Correspondence: (K.A.); (R.K.); (H.G.); (B.W.)
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10
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Md-Lasim A, Mohd-Taib FS, Abdul-Halim M, Mohd-Ngesom AM, Nathan S, Md-Nor S. Leptospirosis and Coinfection: Should We Be Concerned? INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2021; 18:ijerph18179411. [PMID: 34502012 PMCID: PMC8431591 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph18179411] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/18/2021] [Revised: 08/05/2021] [Accepted: 08/23/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Pathogenic Leptospira is the causative agent of leptospirosis, an emerging zoonotic disease affecting animals and humans worldwide. The risk of host infection following interaction with environmental sources depends on the ability of Leptospira to persist, survive, and infect the new host to continue the transmission chain. Leptospira may coexist with other pathogens, thus providing a suitable condition for the development of other pathogens, resulting in multi-pathogen infection in humans. Therefore, it is important to better understand the dynamics of transmission by these pathogens. We conducted Boolean searches of several databases, including Google Scholar, PubMed, SciELO, and ScienceDirect, to identify relevant published data on Leptospira and coinfection with other pathogenic bacteria. We review the role of the host-microbiota in determining the synanthropic interaction of Leptospira sp. with other bacteria, thus creating a suitable condition for the leptospira to survive and persist successfully. We also discuss the biotic and abiotic factors that amplify the viability of Leptospira in the environment. The coinfection of leptospira with pathogenic bacteria has rarely been reported, potentially contributing to a lack of awareness. Therefore, the occurrence of leptospirosis coinfection may complicate diagnosis, long-lasting examination, and mistreatment that could lead to mortality. Identifying the presence of leptospirosis with other bacteria through metagenomic analysis could reveal possible coinfection. In conclusion, the occurrence of leptospirosis with other diseases should be of concern and may depend on the success of the transmission and severity of individual infections. Medical practitioners may misdiagnose the presence of multiple infections and should be made aware of and receive adequate training on appropriate treatment for leptospirosis patients. Physicians could undertake a more targeted approach for leptospirosis diagnosis by considering other symptoms caused by the coinfected bacteria; thus, more specific treatment could be given.
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Affiliation(s)
- Asmalia Md-Lasim
- Department of Biological Sciences and Biotechnology, Faculty of Science and Technology, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, UKM, Bangi 43600, Selangor, Malaysia; (A.M.-L.); (S.N.); (S.M.-N.)
- Herbal Medicine Research Centre (HMRC), Institute for Medical Research (IMR), National Institue of Health (NIH), Ministry of Health, Shah Alam 40170, Selangor, Malaysia
| | - Farah Shafawati Mohd-Taib
- Department of Biological Sciences and Biotechnology, Faculty of Science and Technology, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, UKM, Bangi 43600, Selangor, Malaysia; (A.M.-L.); (S.N.); (S.M.-N.)
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +60-12-3807701
| | - Mardani Abdul-Halim
- Biotechnology Research Institute, Universiti Malaysia Sabah, Jalan UMS, Kota Kinabalu 88400, Sabah, Malaysia;
| | - Ahmad Mohiddin Mohd-Ngesom
- Center for Toxicology and Health Risk, Faculty of Health Sciences, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Kuala Lumpur 50300, Federal Territory of Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia;
| | - Sheila Nathan
- Department of Biological Sciences and Biotechnology, Faculty of Science and Technology, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, UKM, Bangi 43600, Selangor, Malaysia; (A.M.-L.); (S.N.); (S.M.-N.)
| | - Shukor Md-Nor
- Department of Biological Sciences and Biotechnology, Faculty of Science and Technology, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, UKM, Bangi 43600, Selangor, Malaysia; (A.M.-L.); (S.N.); (S.M.-N.)
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11
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Gamage CD, Sato Y, Kimura R, Yamashiro T, Toma C. Understanding leptospirosis eco-epidemiology by environmental DNA metabarcoding of irrigation water from two agro-ecological regions of Sri Lanka. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2020; 14:e0008437. [PMID: 32701971 PMCID: PMC7377381 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0008437] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/05/2020] [Accepted: 06/01/2020] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Leptospirosis is one of the most significant zoonoses across the world not only because of its impact on human and animal health but also because of the economic and social impact on agrarian communities. Leptospirosis is endemic in Sri Lanka where paddy farming activities, the use of draught animals in agriculture, and peridomestic animals in urban and rural areas play important roles in maintaining the infection cycle of pathogenic Leptospira, especially concerning animals as a potential reservoir. In this study, an environmental DNA (eDNA) metabarcoding methodology was applied in two different agro-ecological regions of Sri Lanka to understand the eco-epidemiology of leptospirosis. Methodology/Principal findings Irrigation water samples were collected in Kandy District (wet zone mid-country region 2) and Girandurukotte, Badulla District (intermediate zone low-country region 2); and analysed for the presence of pathogenic Leptospira, associated microbiome and the potential reservoir animals. Briefly, we generated PCR products for high-throughput sequencing of multiple amplicons through next-generation sequencing. The analysis of eDNA showed different environmental microbiomes in both regions and a higher diversity of Leptospira species circulating in Kandy than in Girandurukotte. Moreover, the number of sequence reads of pathogenic Leptospira species associated with clinical cases such as L. interrogans was higher in Kandy than in Girandurukotte. Kandy also showed more animal species associated with pathogenic bacterial species than Girandurukotte. Finally, several pathogenic bacterial species including Arcobacter cryaerophilus, responsible for abortion in animals, was shown to be associated with pathogenic Leptospira. Conclusions/Significance Leptospirosis has been considered to be endemic in wet regions, consistently, leptospiral sequences were detected strongly in Kandy. The great Leptospira species diversity in Kandy observed in this study shows that the etiological agents of leptospirosis in Sri Lanka might be underestimated. Furthermore, our eDNA metabarcoding can be used to discriminate bacterial and animal species diversity in different regions and to explore environmental microbiomes to identify other associated bacterial pathogens in the environment. Leptospirosis is a widespread bacterial zoonosis with increasing importance due to its vast range of reservoir hosts. Early symptoms are shared by other infectious diseases common in tropical and sub-tropical regions, where the real burden and risk factors need to be known. In Sri Lanka, leptospirosis is mostly an occupational disease associated with freshwater or animal exposure in agriculture communities. Thus, there is a need for understanding the epidemiology of leptospirosis in agrarian regions of the country for developing better prevention and intervention strategies. In this study, we applied an environmental DNA metabarcoding methodology to understand the environmental microbiome, potential reservoir animals and the Leptospira species circulating in two different agro-ecological regions of Sri Lanka: Kandy (wet region mid-country region 2) and Girandurukotte (intermediate region low-country region 2). It is known that pathogenic Leptospira are excreted through the urine of reservoir animals in the environment, where they can persist in humid conditions. Congruently, this study showed a higher detection of pathogenic Leptospira in the environment of Kandy where the environmental microbiome showed a higher diversity than Girandurukotte. Potential animal reservoirs were also detected in samples positive for pathogenic Leptospira, suggesting that environmental DNA metabarcoding can provide important information for management and intervention strategies to control leptospirosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chandika D. Gamage
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Peradeniya, Peradeniya, Kandy, Sri Lanka
| | - Yukuto Sato
- Center for Strategic Research Project, Organization for Research Promotion, University of the Ryukyus, Nishihara, Okinawa, Japan
- * E-mail: (YS); (CT)
| | - Ryosuke Kimura
- Department of Human Biology and Anatomy, Graduate School of Medicine, University of the Ryukyus, Nishihara, Okinawa, Japan
| | - Tetsu Yamashiro
- Department of Bacteriology, Graduate School of Medicine, University of the Ryukyus, Nishihara, Okinawa, Japan
| | - Claudia Toma
- Department of Bacteriology, Graduate School of Medicine, University of the Ryukyus, Nishihara, Okinawa, Japan
- * E-mail: (YS); (CT)
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The zoonotic pathogen Leptospira interrogans mitigates environmental stress through cyclic-di-GMP-controlled biofilm production. NPJ Biofilms Microbiomes 2020; 6:24. [PMID: 32532998 PMCID: PMC7293261 DOI: 10.1038/s41522-020-0134-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/02/2020] [Accepted: 05/14/2020] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
The zoonotic bacterium Leptospira interrogans is the aetiological agent of leptospirosis, a re-emerging infectious disease that is a growing public health concern. Most human cases of leptospirosis result from environmental infection. Biofilm formation and its contribution to the persistence of virulent leptospires in the environment or in the host have scarcely been addressed. Here, we examined spatial and time-domain changes in biofilm production by L. interrogans. Our observations showed that biofilm formation in L. interrogans is a highly dynamic process and leads to a polarized architecture. We notably found that the biofilm matrix is composed of extracellular DNA, which enhances the biofilm's cohesiveness. By studying L. interrogans mutants with defective diguanylate cyclase and phosphodiesterase genes, we show that biofilm production is regulated by intracellular levels of bis-(3'-5')-cyclic dimeric guanosine monophosphate (c-di-GMP) and underpins the bacterium's ability to withstand a wide variety of simulated environmental stresses. Our present results show how the c-di-GMP pathway regulates biofilm formation by L. interrogans, provide insights into the environmental persistence of L. interrogans and, more generally, highlight leptospirosis as an environment-borne threat to human health.
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Bierque E, Thibeaux R, Girault D, Soupé-Gilbert ME, Goarant C. A systematic review of Leptospira in water and soil environments. PLoS One 2020; 15:e0227055. [PMID: 31986154 PMCID: PMC6984726 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0227055] [Citation(s) in RCA: 80] [Impact Index Per Article: 20.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/17/2019] [Accepted: 12/10/2019] [Indexed: 01/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Leptospirosis, caused by pathogenic Leptospira, is a zoonosis of global distribution. This infectious disease is mainly transmitted by indirect exposure to urine of asymptomatic animals via the environment. As human cases generally occur after heavy rain, an emerging hypothesis suggests that rainfall re-suspend leptospires together with soil particles. Bacteria are then carried to surface water, where humans get exposed. It is currently assumed that pathogenic leptospires can survive in the environment but do not multiply. However, little is known on their capacity to survive in a soil and freshwater environment. Methods We conducted a systematic review on Leptospira and leptospirosis in the environment in order to collect current knowledge on the lifestyle of Leptospira in soil and water. In total, 86 scientific articles retrieved from online databases or institutional libraries were included in this study. Principals findings/significance This work identified evidence of survival of Leptospira in the environment but major gaps remain about the survival of virulent species associated with human and animal diseases. Studies providing quantitative data on Leptospira in soil and water are a very recent trend, but must be interpreted with caution because of the uncertainty in the species identification. Several studies mentioned the presence of Leptospira in soils more frequently than in waters, supporting the hypothesis of the soil habitat and dispersion of Leptospira with re-suspended soil particles during heavy rain. In a near future, the growing use of high throughput sequencing will offer new opportunities to improve our understanding of the habitat of Leptospira in the environment. This better insight into the risk of leptospirosis will allow implementing efficient control measures and prevention for the human and animal populations exposed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emilie Bierque
- Leptospirosis Research and Expertise Unit, Institut Pasteur in New Caledonia, Institut Pasteur International Network, Noumea, New Caledonia
| | - Roman Thibeaux
- Leptospirosis Research and Expertise Unit, Institut Pasteur in New Caledonia, Institut Pasteur International Network, Noumea, New Caledonia
| | - Dominique Girault
- Leptospirosis Research and Expertise Unit, Institut Pasteur in New Caledonia, Institut Pasteur International Network, Noumea, New Caledonia
| | - Marie-Estelle Soupé-Gilbert
- Leptospirosis Research and Expertise Unit, Institut Pasteur in New Caledonia, Institut Pasteur International Network, Noumea, New Caledonia
| | - Cyrille Goarant
- Leptospirosis Research and Expertise Unit, Institut Pasteur in New Caledonia, Institut Pasteur International Network, Noumea, New Caledonia
- * E-mail:
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Ngasaman R, Saechan V, Prachantasena S, Yingkajorn M, Sretrirutchai S. Investigation of Leptospira Infection in Stray Animals in Songkhla, Thailand: Leptospirosis Risk Reduction in Human. Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis 2020; 20:432-435. [PMID: 31905047 DOI: 10.1089/vbz.2019.2549] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Leptospirosis is a zoonosis of public health concern in Thailand. Human leptospirosis presents severe illness and can be fatal due to pulmonary hemorrhage, kidney failure, or cardiac impairment. Infected animals show no clinical signs and play an important role in the Leptospira infection of humans and other hosts. The prevalence of leptospirosis in stray animals in Thailand is unknown. The aim of this study was to investigate the incidence of Leptospira infection in stray animals including dogs and cats in Songkhla province, Thailand. A total of 434 blood samples were collected from 370 stray dogs and 64 stray cats during a population control program from 2014 to 2018. Screening the serum samples using the latex agglutination test to detect antibodies against Leptospira interrogans showed that 29.26% (127/434) were positive. There were 120 positive samples for stray dogs and 7 positive samples for stray cats. The detection of positive samples by polymerase chain reaction specific to the LipL32 of L. interrogans showed 1.61% (7/434) were positive. Stray cats (5/64) showed a higher prevalence than stray dogs (2/370), which might be because they are more likely to come into contact with rodents in their habitat. Although the active infection detected was low, the seroprevalence was high. This result indicated that the stray animals might not have been infected at the time of sample collection, but that they had been infected in the past or were in a latent period of infection. Therefore, they might serve as a leptospirosis reservoir for domestic animals and humans present in the same environment. The results show that stray animals need health care, such as vaccination, surveillance, and treatment, when infected to prevent or reduce the risk of transmission to humans.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Vannarat Saechan
- Faculty of Veterinary Science, Prince of Songkla University, Songkhla, Thailand
| | | | - Mingkwan Yingkajorn
- Department of Pathology, Faculty of Medicine, Prince of Songkla University, Songkhla, Thailand
| | - Somporn Sretrirutchai
- Department of Pathology, Faculty of Medicine, Prince of Songkla University, Songkhla, Thailand
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Vinod Kumar K, Lall C, Raj RV, Vijayachari P. Coaggregation and biofilm formation of Leptospira with Staphylococcus aureus. Microbiol Immunol 2019; 63:147-150. [PMID: 31037765 DOI: 10.1111/1348-0421.12679] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/18/2019] [Revised: 03/04/2019] [Accepted: 03/05/2019] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
It is not known how Leptospira react to wound or a cut infected with microbes, such as pathogenic Staphylococcus, or their common habitat on oral or nasal mucosal membranes. In the present study, Staphylococcus aureus MTCC-737 showed strong co-aggregation with leptospiral strains (>75%, visual score of + 4) in vitro. All tested strains of Leptospira were able to form biofilm with S. aureus. Scanning electron microscopy analysis revealed intertwined networks of attached cells of L. interrogans and S. aureus, thus providing evidence of a matrix-like structure. This phenomenon may have implications in Leptospira infection, which occurs via cuts and wounds of the skin.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kirubakaran Vinod Kumar
- Regional Medical Research Centre (ICMR), WHO Collaborating Centre for Diagnosis, Reference, Research and Training in Leptospirosis, Port Blair, Andaman and Nicobar Islands, India.,Department of Microbiology, Indian Academy Degree College -Autonomous, Hennur Cross, Bengaluru, Karnataka, India
| | - Chandan Lall
- Regional Medical Research Centre (ICMR), WHO Collaborating Centre for Diagnosis, Reference, Research and Training in Leptospirosis, Port Blair, Andaman and Nicobar Islands, India
| | - Ratchagadasse Vimal Raj
- Regional Medical Research Centre (ICMR), WHO Collaborating Centre for Diagnosis, Reference, Research and Training in Leptospirosis, Port Blair, Andaman and Nicobar Islands, India
| | - Paluru Vijayachari
- Regional Medical Research Centre (ICMR), WHO Collaborating Centre for Diagnosis, Reference, Research and Training in Leptospirosis, Port Blair, Andaman and Nicobar Islands, India
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Ghazaei C. Pathogenic Leptospira: Advances in understanding the molecular pathogenesis and virulence. Open Vet J 2018; 8:13-24. [PMID: 29445617 PMCID: PMC5806663 DOI: 10.4314/ovj.v8i1.4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2017] [Accepted: 01/08/2018] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Leptospirosis is a common zoonotic disease has emerged as a major public health problem, with developing countries bearing disproportionate burdens. Although the diverse range of clinical manifestations of the leptospirosis in humans is widely documented, the mechanisms through which the pathogen causes disease remain undetermined. In addition, leptospirosis is a much-neglected life-threatening disease although it is one of the most important zoonoses occurring in a diverse range of epidemiological distribution. Recent advances in molecular profiling of pathogenic species of the genus Leptospira have improved our understanding of the evolutionary factors that determine virulence and mechanisms that the bacteria employ to survive. However, a major impediment to the formulation of intervention strategies has been the limited understanding of the disease determinants. Consequently, the association of the biological mechanisms to the pathogenesis of Leptospira, as well as the functions of numerous essential virulence factors still remain implicit. This review examines recent advances in genetic screening technologies, the underlying microbiological processes, the virulence factors and associated molecular mechanisms driving pathogenesis of Leptospira species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ciamak Ghazaei
- Department of Microbiology, University of Mohaghegh Ardabili, P.O. Box 179, Ardabil, Iran
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Critical Knowledge Gaps in Our Understanding of Environmental Cycling and Transmission of Leptospira spp. Appl Environ Microbiol 2017; 83:AEM.01190-17. [PMID: 28754706 PMCID: PMC5601346 DOI: 10.1128/aem.01190-17] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Exposure to soil or water contaminated with the urine of Leptospira-infected animals is the most common way in which humans contract leptospirosis. Entire populations can be at high risk of leptospirosis while working in inundated fields, when engaging in aquatic sports, or after periods of heavy rainfall. The risk of infection after contact with these environmental sources depends on the ability of Leptospira bacteria to survive, persist, and infect new hosts. Multiple variables such as soil and water pH, temperature, and even environmental microbial communities are likely to shape the environmental conditions needed by the pathogen to persist. Here we review what is known about the environmental phase of the infectious Leptospira transmission cycle and identify knowledge gaps that will serve as a guide for future research.
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