The proteome and transcriptome of the infectious metacyclic form of Trypanosoma brucei define quiescent cells primed for mammalian invasion

TblncRNA-23, a long non-coding RNA transcribed by RNA polymerase I, regulates developmental changes in Trypanosoma brucei

The protozoan parasite Trypanosoma brucei undergoes a complex life cycle, moving between its mammalian host and the blood-feeding tsetse fly vector. The two major surface proteins expressed by procyclic forms in the insect midgut, EP and GPEET procyclin, are transcribed from a polycistronic transcription unit by RNA polymerase I. Here we identify a long non-coding RNA, TblncRNA-23, that is encoded between the two procyclin genes. TblncRNA-23 localizes to the nucleolus and also associates with polysomes. Overexpression of TblncRNA-23 and its down regulation by RNAi or knockout (KO) identify EP and GPEET mRNAs as targets, among other mRNAs that changed abundance in the transition from early to late procyclic forms and from procylic to the metacylic forms, suggesting its role in regulating gene expression which accomapines or dictates of the parasite transitions within in its insect host. TblncRNA-23 interacts with its substrates via base-pairing using different domains. Purification of TblncRNA-23-associated proteins by RaPID identifies hundreds of proteins, including proteins translated from its target mRNAs, suggesting its association with translating ribosomes. Early and late procyclic forms differ in their social motility (SoMo) capabilities, which is essential for migration away from the insect midgut to enable parasite transmission. Overexpression of TblncRNA-23 results in hypermotility, whereas KO compromises this capacity, suggesting a regulatory role in SoMo. Moreover, silencing of the RNA abrogates the ability of the parasite to transform from procylic to the metacyclic forms affecting the parasite's potential to cycle between its hosts.

Alba protein-mediated gene and protein regulation in protozoan parasites

The success of protozoan parasites relies heavily on regulation of gene and protein expression to facilitate their persistence in harsh and often changing environments. These parasites display biology that is highly divergent from model eukaryotes, unfortunately leaving our understanding of these parasites' critical regulatory mechanisms incomplete. Alba proteins, a highly diverse group of DNA/RNA-binding proteins, are found across all domains of life and it has become increasingly apparent that these proteins play key regulatory roles in many protozoan parasite species including Plasmodium, Leishmania, Toxoplasma, and Trypanosoma. This review focusses on a subset of clinically relevant protozoan parasites and highlights the key biological processes known to have Alba protein involvement in these organisms including parasite development, survival, and virulence. In order to gain greater insight into these proteins, we also undertook a bioinformatic exploration of their protein sequences, leading us to identify previously unreported C-terminal Alba domain motifs and propose annotations for several currently unannotated protozoan Alba-like proteins. This collation of information allows us to observe common themes in Alba protein function across this group of parasites while also identifying areas of opportunity for further study.

Deep mutational scanning of the Trypanosoma brucei developmental regulator RBP6 reveals an essential disordered region influenced by positive residues

To regain infectivity, Trypanosoma brucei, the pathogen causing Human and Animal African trypanosomiasis, undergoes a complex developmental program within the tsetse fly known as metacyclogenesis. RNA-binding protein 6 (RBP6) is a potent orchestrator of this process, however, an understanding of its functionally important domains and their mutational constraints is lacking. Here, we perform deep mutational scanning of the entire RBP6 primary structure. Expression of libraries containing all single-point variants of RBP6 in non-infectious procyclic forms and subsequent purification of infectious metacyclics supports the existence of an RNA-recognition motif (RRM) and reveal an N-terminal intrinsically disordered region (N-IDR). In contrast to the RRM, the N-IDR is more tolerant to substitutions; however, a handful of positions contain a third of all deleterious mutations found in the N-IDR. Introduction of positively charged residues in the N-IDR dramatically alters the normal metacyclogenesis pattern. Our results reveal an essential N-IDR, possibly playing a regulatory role, and an RRM likely involved in protein-RNA interactions.

Life stage-specific poly(A) site selection regulated by Trypanosoma brucei DRBD18

The kinetoplastid parasite, Trypanosoma brucei, undergoes a complex life cycle entailing slender and stumpy bloodstream forms in mammals and procyclic and metacyclic forms (MFs) in tsetse fly hosts. The numerous gene regulatory events that underlie T. brucei differentiation between hosts, as well as between active and quiescent stages within each host, take place in the near absence of transcriptional control. Rather, differentiation is controlled by RNA-binding proteins (RBPs) that associate with mRNA 3' untranslated regions (3'UTRs) to impact RNA stability and translational efficiency. DRBD18 is a multifunctional T. brucei RBP, shown to impact mRNA stability, translation, export, and processing. Here, we use single-cell RNAseq to characterize transcriptomic changes in cell populations that arise upon DRBD18 depletion, as well as to visualize transcriptome-wide alterations to 3'UTR length. We show that in procyclic insect stages, DRBD18 represses expression of stumpy bloodstream form and MF transcripts. Additionally, DRBD18 regulates the 3'UTR lengths of over 1,500 transcripts, typically promoting the use of distal polyadenylation sites, and thus the inclusion of 3'UTR regulatory elements. Remarkably, comparison of polyadenylation patterns in DRBD18 knockdowns with polyadenylation patterns in stumpy bloodstream forms shows numerous similarities, revealing a role for poly(A) site selection in developmental gene regulation, and indicating that DRBD18 controls this process for a set of transcripts. RNA immunoprecipitation supports a direct role for DRBD18 in poly(A) site selection. This report highlights the importance of alternative polyadenylation in T. brucei developmental control and identifies a critical RBP in this process.

Translational control by Trypanosoma brucei DRBD18 contributes to the maintenance of the procyclic state

Trypanosoma brucei occupies distinct niches throughout its life cycle, within both the mammalian and tsetse fly hosts. The immunological and biochemical complexity and variability of each of these environments require a reshaping of the protein landscape of the parasite both to evade surveillance and face changing metabolic demands. In kinetoplastid protozoa, including T. brucei, posttranscriptional control mechanisms are the primary means of gene regulation, and these are often mediated by RNA-binding proteins. DRBD18 is a T. brucei RNA-binding protein that reportedly interacts with ribosomal proteins and translation factors. Here, we tested a role for DRBD18 in translational control. We validate the DRBD18 interaction with translating ribosomes and the translation initiation factor, eIF3a. We further show that DRBD18 depletion by RNA interference leads to altered polysomal profiles with a specific depletion of heavy polysomes. Ribosome profiling analysis reveals that 101 transcripts change in translational efficiency (TE) upon DRBD18 depletion: 41 exhibit decreased TE and 60 exhibit increased TE. A further 66 transcripts are buffered, that is, changes in transcript abundance are compensated by changes in TE such that the total translational output is expected not to change. In DRBD18-depleted cells, a set of transcripts that codes for procyclic form-specific proteins is translationally repressed while, conversely, transcripts that code for bloodstream form- and metacyclic form-specific proteins are translationally enhanced. RNA immunoprecipitation/qRT-PCR indicates that DRBD18 associates with members of both repressed and enhanced cohorts. These data suggest that DRBD18 contributes to the maintenance of the procyclic state through both positive and negative translational control of specific mRNAs.

Two cold shock domain containing proteins trigger the development of infectious Trypanosoma brucei

Cold shock proteins are members of a family of DNA- and RNA-binding proteins with one or more evolutionarily conserved cold shock domain (CSD). These proteins have a wide variety of biological functions, including DNA-damage repair, mRNA stability, and regulation of transcription, splicing and translation. We previously identified two CSD containing proteins, CSD1 and CSD2, in the protozoan parasite Trypanosoma brucei to be required for RBP6-driven metacyclic production, albeit at different steps of the developmental program. During metacyclogenesis T. brucei undergoes major morphological and metabolic changes that culminate in the establishment of quiescent metacyclic parasites and the acquisition of mammalian infectivity. To investigate the specific role of CSD1 and CSD2 in this process, we ectopically expressed CSD1 or CSD2 in non-infectious procyclic parasites and discovered that each protein is sufficient to produce infectious metacyclic parasites in 24 hours. Domain truncation assays determined that the N-terminal domain, but not the C-terminal domain, of CSD1 and CSD2 was required for metacyclic development. Furthermore, conserved amino acid residues in the CSD of CSD1 and CSD2, known to be important for binding nucleic acids, were found to be necessary for metacyclic production. Using single-end enhanced crosslinking and immunoprecipitation (seCLIP) we identified the specific binding motif of CSD1 and CSD2 as "ANACAU" and the bound mRNAs were enriched for biological processes, including lipid metabolism, microtubule-based movement and nucleocytoplasmic transport that are likely involved in the transition to bloodstream form-like cells.

Profiling the bloodstream form and procyclic form Trypanosoma brucei cell cycle using single-cell transcriptomics

African trypanosomes proliferate as bloodstream forms (BSFs) and procyclic forms in the mammal and tsetse fly midgut, respectively. This allows them to colonise the host environment upon infection and ensure life cycle progression. Yet, understanding of the mechanisms that regulate and drive the cell replication cycle of these forms is limited. Using single-cell transcriptomics on unsynchronised cell populations, we have obtained high resolution cell cycle regulated (CCR) transcriptomes of both procyclic and slender BSF Trypanosoma brucei without prior cell sorting or synchronisation. Additionally, we describe an efficient freeze-thawing protocol that allows single-cell transcriptomic analysis of cryopreserved T. brucei. Computational reconstruction of the cell cycle using periodic pseudotime inference allowed the dynamic expression patterns of cycling genes to be profiled for both life cycle forms. Comparative analyses identify a core cycling transcriptome highly conserved between forms, as well as several genes where transcript levels dynamics are form specific. Comparing transcript expression patterns with protein abundance revealed that the majority of genes with periodic cycling transcript and protein levels exhibit a relative delay between peak transcript and protein expression. This work reveals novel detail of the CCR transcriptomes of both forms, which are available for further interrogation via an interactive webtool.

Role of the RNA-binding protein ZC3H41 in the regulation of ribosomal protein messenger RNAs in trypanosomes

BACKGROUND

Trypanosomes are single-celled eukaryotes that rely heavily on post-transcriptional mechanisms to regulate gene expression. RNA-binding proteins play essential roles in regulating the fate, abundance and translation of messenger RNAs (mRNAs). Among these, zinc finger proteins of the cysteine3histidine (CCCH) class have been shown to be key players in cellular processes as diverse as differentiation, regulation of the cell cycle and translation. ZC3H41 is an essential zinc finger protein that has been described as a component of spliced leader RNA granules and nutritional stress granules, but its role in RNA metabolism is unknown.

METHODS

Cell cycle analysis in ZC3H41- and Z41AP-depleted cells was carried out using 4',6-diamidino-2-phenylindole staining, microscopic examination and flow cytometry. The identification of ZC3H41 protein partners was done using tandem affinity purification and mass spectrometry. Next-generation sequencing was used to evaluate the effect of ZC3H41 depletion on the transcriptome of procyclic Trypanosoma brucei cells, and also to identify the cohort of mRNAs associated with the ZC3H41/Z41AP complex. Levels of 5S ribosomal RNA (rRNA) species in ZC3H41- and Z41AP-depleted cells were assessed by quantitative reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction. Surface sensing of translation assays were used to monitor global translation.

RESULTS

We showed that depletion of the zinc finger protein ZC3H41 resulted in marked cell cycle defects and abnormal cell morphologies. ZC3H41 was found associated with an essential protein, which we named Z41AP, forming a stable heterodimer, and also with proteins of the poly(A)-binding protein 1 complex. The identification of mRNAs associated with the ZC3H41/Z41AP complex revealed that it is primarily composed of ribosomal protein mRNAs, and that binding to target transcripts is diminished upon nutritional stress. In addition, we observed that mRNAs encoding several proteins involved in the maturation of 5S rRNA are also associated with the ZC3H41/Z41AP complex. Finally, we showed that depletion of either ZC3H41 or Z41AP led to the accumulation of 5S rRNA precursors and a decrease of protein translation.

CONCLUSIONS

We propose that ZC3H41 and Z41AP play important roles in controlling the fate of ribosomal components in response to environmental cues.

The Trypanosoma brucei MISP family of invariant proteins is co-expressed with BARP as triple helical bundle structures on the surface of salivary gland forms, but is dispensable for parasite development within the tsetse vector

Trypanosoma brucei spp. develop into mammalian-infectious metacyclic trypomastigotes inside tsetse salivary glands. Besides acquiring a variant surface glycoprotein (VSG) coat, little is known about the metacyclic expression of invariant surface antigens. Proteomic analyses of saliva from T. brucei-infected tsetse flies identified, in addition to VSG and Brucei Alanine-Rich Protein (BARP) peptides, a family of glycosylphosphatidylinositol (GPI)-anchored surface proteins herein named as Metacyclic Invariant Surface Proteins (MISP) because of its predominant expression on the surface of metacyclic trypomastigotes. The MISP family is encoded by five paralog genes with >80% protein identity, which are exclusively expressed by salivary gland stages of the parasite and peak in metacyclic stage, as shown by confocal microscopy and immuno-high resolution scanning electron microscopy. Crystallographic analysis of a MISP isoform (MISP360) and a high confidence model of BARP revealed a triple helical bundle architecture commonly found in other trypanosome surface proteins. Molecular modelling combined with live fluorescent microscopy suggests that MISP N-termini are potentially extended above the metacyclic VSG coat, and thus could be tested as a transmission-blocking vaccine target. However, vaccination with recombinant MISP360 isoform did not protect mice against a T. brucei infectious tsetse bite. Lastly, both CRISPR-Cas9-driven knock out and RNAi knock down of all MISP paralogues suggest they are not essential for parasite development in the tsetse vector. We suggest MISP may be relevant during trypanosome transmission or establishment in the vertebrate's skin.

Nanopore-Based Direct RNA Sequencing of the Trypanosoma brucei Transcriptome Identifies Novel lncRNAs

Trypanosomatids are single-cell eukaryotic parasites. Unlike higher eukaryotes, they control gene expression post-transcriptionally and not at the level of transcription initiation. This involves all known cellular RNA circuits, from mRNA processing to mRNA decay, to translation, in addition to a large panel of RNA-interacting proteins that modulate mRNA abundance. However, other forms of gene regulation, for example by lncRNAs, cannot be excluded. LncRNAs are poorly studied in trypanosomatids, with only a single lncRNA characterized to date. Furthermore, it is not clear whether the complete inventory of trypanosomatid lncRNAs is known, because of the inherent cDNA-recoding and DNA-amplification limitations of short-read RNA sequencing. Here, we overcome these limitations by using long-read direct RNA sequencing (DRS) on nanopore arrays. We analyze the native RNA pool of the two main lifecycle stages of the African trypanosome Trypanosoma brucei, with a special emphasis on the inventory of lncRNAs. We identify 207 previously unknown lncRNAs, 32 of which are stage-specifically expressed. We also present insights into the complexity of the T. brucei transcriptome, including alternative transcriptional start and stop sites and potential transcript isoforms, to provide a bias-free understanding of the intricate RNA landscape in T. brucei.

Translational control by Trypanosoma brucei DRBD18 contributes to the maintenance of the procyclic state

Trypanosoma brucei occupies distinct niches throughout its life cycle, within both the mammalian and tsetse fly hosts. The immunological and biochemical complexity and variability of each of these environments require a reshaping of the protein landscape of the parasite both to evade surveillance and face changing metabolic demands. Whereas most well-studied organisms rely on transcriptional control as the main regulator of gene expression, post-transcriptional control mechanisms are particularly important in T. brucei , and these are often mediated by RNA-binding proteins. DRBD18 is a T. brucei RNA-binding protein that interacts with ribosomal proteins and translation factors. Here, we tested a role for DRBD18 in translational control. We show that DRBD18 depletion by RNA interference leads to altered polysomal profiles with a specific depletion of heavy polysomes. Ribosome profiling analysis reveals that 101 transcripts change in translational efficiency (TE) upon DRBD18 depletion: 41 exhibit decreased TE and 60 exhibit increased TE. A further 66 transcripts are buffered, i.e . changes in transcript abundance are compensated by changes in TE such that the total translational output is expected not to change. Proteomic analysis validates these data. In DRBD18-depleted cells, a cohort of transcripts that codes for procyclic form-specific proteins is translationally repressed while, conversely, transcripts that code for bloodstream form- and metacyclic form-specific proteins are translationally enhanced. These data suggest that DRBD18 contributes to the maintenance of the procyclic state through both positive and negative translational control of specific mRNAs.

Structural similarities between the metacyclic and bloodstream form variant surface glycoproteins of the African trypanosome

During infection of mammalian hosts, African trypanosomes thwart immunity using antigenic variation of the dense Variant Surface Glycoprotein (VSG) coat, accessing a large repertoire of several thousand genes and pseudogenes, and switching to antigenically distinct copies. The parasite is transferred to mammalian hosts by the tsetse fly. In the salivary glands of the fly, the pathogen adopts the metacyclic form and expresses a limited repertoire of VSG genes specific to that developmental stage. It has remained unknown whether the metacyclic VSGs possess distinct properties associated with this particular and discrete phase of the parasite life cycle. We present here three novel metacyclic form VSG N-terminal domain crystal structures (mVSG397, mVSG531, and mVSG1954) and show that they mirror closely in architecture, oligomerization, and surface diversity the known classes of bloodstream form VSGs. These data suggest that the mVSGs are unlikely to be a specialized subclass of VSG proteins, and thus could be poor candidates as the major components of prophylactic vaccines against trypanosomiasis.

The RNA-binding protein RBP33 dampens non-productive transcription in trypanosomes

In-depth analysis of the transcriptomes of several model organisms has revealed that genomes are pervasively transcribed, giving rise to an abundance of non-canonical and mainly antisense RNA polymerase II-derived transcripts that are produced from almost any genomic context. Pervasive RNAs are degraded by surveillance mechanisms, but the repertoire of proteins that control the fate of these non-productive transcripts is still incomplete. Trypanosomes are single-celled eukaryotes that show constitutive RNA polymerase II transcription and in which initiation and termination of transcription occur at a limited number of sites per chromosome. It is not known whether pervasive transcription exists in organisms with unregulated RNA polymerase II activity, and which factors could be involved in the process. We show here that depletion of RBP33 results in overexpression of ∼40% of all annotated genes in the genome, with a marked accumulation of sense and antisense transcripts derived from silenced regions. RBP33 loss does not result in a significant increase in chromatin accessibility. Finally, we have found that transcripts that increase in abundance upon RBP33 knockdown are significantly more stable in RBP33-depleted trypanosomes, and that the exosome complex is responsible for their degradation. Our results provide strong evidence that RBP33 dampens non-productive transcription in trypanosomes.

Distinguishing functions of trypanosomatid protein kinases

Trypanosomatid parasitic protozoa are divergent from opisthokont models and have evolved unique mechanisms to regulate their complex life cycles and to adapt to a range of hosts. Understanding how these organisms respond, adapt, and persist in their different hosts could reveal optimal drug-control strategies. Protein kinases are fundamental to many biological processes such as cell cycle control, adaptation to stress, and cellular differentiation. Therefore, we have focused this review on the features and functions of protein kinases that distinguish trypanosomatid kinomes from other eukaryotes. We describe the latest research, highlighting similarities and differences between two groups of trypanosomatid parasites, Leishmania and African trypanosomes.

Immunoinformatic design of a putative multi-epitope vaccine candidate against Trypanosoma brucei gambiense

Human African trypanosomiasis (HAT) is a neglected tropical disease that is caused by flagellated parasites of the genus Trypanosoma. HAT imposes a significant socio-economic burden on many countries in sub-Saharan Africa and its control is hampered by several drawbacks ranging from the ineffectiveness of drugs, complex dosing regimens, drug resistance, and lack of a vaccine. Despite more than a century of research and investigations, the development of a vaccine to tackle HAT is still challenging due to the complex biology of the pathogens. Advancements in computational modeling coupled with the availability of an unprecedented amount of omics data from different organisms have allowed the design of new generation vaccines that offer better antigenicity and safety profile. One of such new generation approaches is a multi-epitope vaccine (MEV) designed from a collection of antigenic peptides. A MEV can stimulate both cellular and humoral immune responses as well as avoiding possible allergenic reactions. Herein, we take advantage of this approach to design a MEV from conserved hypothetical plasma membrane proteins of Trypanosoma brucei gambiense, the trypanosome subspecies that is responsible for the west and central African forms of HAT. The designed MEV is 402 amino acids long (41.5 kDa). It is predicted to be antigenic, non-toxic, to assume a stable 3D conformation, and to interact with a key immune receptor. In addition, immune simulation foresaw adequate immune stimulation by the putative antigen and a lasting memory. Therefore, the designed chimeric vaccine represents a potential candidate that could be used to target HAT.

The Trypanosoma brucei RNA-binding protein DRBD18 ensures correct mRNA trans splicing and polyadenylation patterns

The parasite Trypanosoma brucei grows as bloodstream forms in mammals, and as procyclic forms in tsetse flies. Transcription is polycistronic, all mRNAs are trans spliced, and polyadenylation sites are defined by downstream splicing signals. Expression regulation therefore depends heavily on post-transcriptional mechanisms. The RNA-binding protein DRBD18 was previously implicated in the export of some mRNAs from the nucleus in procyclic forms. It copurifies the outer ring of the nuclear pore, mRNA export factors and exon-junction-complex proteins. We show that for more than 200 mRNAs, DRBD18 depletion caused preferential accumulation of versions with shortened 3'-untranslated regions, arising from use of polyadenylation sites that were either undetectable or rarely seen in nondepleted cells. The shortened mRNAs were often, but not always, more abundant in depleted cells than the corresponding longer versions in normal cells. Their appearance was linked to the appearance of trans-spliced, polyadenylated RNAs containing only downstream 3'-untranslated region-derived sequences. Experiments with one mRNA suggested that nuclear retention alone, through depletion of MEX67, did not affect mRNA length, suggesting a specific effect of DRBD18 on processing. DRBD18-bound mRNAs were enriched in polypyrimidine tract motifs, and DRBD18 was found in both the nucleus and the cytoplasm. We therefore suggest that in the nucleus, DRBD18 might bind to polypyrimidine tracts in 3'-UTRs of mRNA precursors. Such binding might both prevent recognition of mRNA-internal polypyrimidine tracts by splicing factors, and promote export of the processed bound mRNAs to the cytosol.

Stage-specific transcription activator ESB1 regulates monoallelic antigen expression in Trypanosoma brucei

Variant surface glycoprotein (VSG) coats bloodstream form Trypanosoma brucei parasites, and monoallelic VSG expression underpins the antigenic variation necessary for pathogenicity. One of thousands of VSG genes is transcribed by RNA polymerase I in a singular nuclear structure called the expression site body (ESB), but how monoallelic VSG transcription is achieved remains unclear. Using a localization screen of 153 proteins we found one, ESB-specific protein 1 (ESB1), that localized only to the ESB and is expressed only in VSG-expressing life cycle stages. ESB1 associates with DNA near the active VSG promoter and is necessary for VSG expression, with overexpression activating inactive VSG promoters. Mechanistically, ESB1 is necessary for recruitment of a subset of ESB components, including RNA polymerase I, revealing that the ESB has separately assembled subdomains. Because many trypanosomatid parasites have divergent ESB1 orthologues yet do not undergo antigenic variation, ESB1 probably represents an important class of transcription regulators.

Mitochondrial adaptations throughout the Trypanosoma brucei life cycle

The unicellular parasite Trypanosoma brucei has a digenetic life cycle that alternates between a mammalian host and an insect vector. During programmed development, this extracellular parasite encounters strikingly different environments that determine its energy metabolism. Functioning as a bioenergetic, biosynthetic, and signaling center, the single mitochondrion of T. brucei is drastically remodeled to support the dynamic cellular demands of the parasite. This manuscript will provide an up-to-date overview of how the distinct T. brucei developmental stages differ in their mitochondrial metabolic and bioenergetic pathways, with a focus on the electron transport chain, proline oxidation, TCA cycle, acetate production, and ATP generation. Although mitochondrial metabolic rewiring has always been simply viewed as a consequence of the differentiation process, the possibility that certain mitochondrial activities reinforce parasite differentiation will be explored.

Several different sequences are implicated in bloodstream-form-specific gene expression in Trypanosoma brucei

The parasite Trypanosoma brucei grows as bloodstream forms in mammalian hosts, and as procyclic forms in tsetse flies. In trypanosomes, gene expression regulation depends heavily on post-transcriptional mechanisms. Both the RNA-binding protein RBP10 and glycosomal phosphoglycerate kinase PGKC are expressed only in mammalian-infective forms. RBP10 targets procyclic-specific mRNAs for destruction, while PGKC is required for bloodstream-form glycolysis. Developmental regulation of both is essential: expression of either RBP10 or PGKC in procyclic forms inhibits their proliferation. We show that the 3’-untranslated region of the RBP10 mRNA is extraordinarily long—7.3kb—and were able to identify six different sequences, scattered across the untranslated region, which can independently cause bloodstream-form-specific expression. The 3’-untranslated region of the PGKC mRNA, although much shorter, still contains two different regions, of 125 and 153nt, that independently gave developmental regulation. No short consensus sequences were identified that were enriched either within these regulatory regions, or when compared with other mRNAs with similar regulation, suggesting that more than one regulatory RNA-binding protein is important for repression of mRNAs in procyclic forms. We also identified regions, including an AU repeat, that increased expression in bloodstream forms, or suppressed it in both forms. Trypanosome mRNAs that encode RNA-binding proteins often have extremely extended 3’-untranslated regions. We suggest that one function of this might be to act as a fail-safe mechanism to ensure correct regulation even if mRNA processing or expression of trans regulators is defective.

The parasite Trypanosoma brucei causes sleeping sickness in humans, and nagana in cattle, and is transmitted by Tsetse flies. It grows in the bloodstream and tissue fluids of mammalian hosts, as "bloodstream forms", and as "procyclic forms" in the midgut of tsetse flies. Several hundred proteins are expressed in a stage-specific fashion, and this is essential for parasite survival in the different environments. RBP10 is an RNA-binding protein that is expressed only in bloodstream forms. It binds to procyclic-specific mRNAs, and causes their destruction. PGKC is an enzyme that is also specifically expressed in bloodstream forms. Developmental regulation of both is essential: expression of either RBP10 or PGKC in procyclic forms prevents their growth. The mRNAs encoding both proteins are very unstable in procyclic forms, and the sequences responsible are in an "untranslated region" of the mRNA—sequences that follow the part that codes for protein. We here show that the mRNA encoding PGKC has two regions that independently cause developmental regulation, and that the very long untranslated region of the RBP10 mRNA has no fewer than six regulatory regions, but there were no obvious similarities between them. We suggest that the presence of several different regulatory sequences in trypanosome mRNAs might be a fail-safe mechanism to ensure correct regulation.

Single-cell transcriptomics reveals expression profiles of Trypanosoma brucei sexual stages

Early diverging lineages such as trypanosomes can provide clues to the evolution of sexual reproduction in eukaryotes. In Trypanosoma brucei, the pathogen that causes Human African Trypanosomiasis, sexual reproduction occurs in the salivary glands of the insect host, but analysis of the molecular signatures that define these sexual forms is complicated because they mingle with more numerous, mitotically-dividing developmental stages. We used single-cell RNA-sequencing (scRNAseq) to profile 388 individual trypanosomes from midgut, proventriculus, and salivary glands of infected tsetse flies allowing us to identify tissue-specific cell types. Further investigation of salivary gland parasite transcriptomes revealed fine-scale changes in gene expression over a developmental progression from putative sexual forms through metacyclics expressing variant surface glycoprotein genes. The cluster of cells potentially containing sexual forms was characterized by high level transcription of the gamete fusion protein HAP2, together with an array of surface proteins and several genes of unknown function. We linked these expression patterns to distinct morphological forms using immunofluorescence assays and reporter gene expression to demonstrate that the kinetoplastid-conserved gene Tb927.10.12080 is exclusively expressed at high levels by meiotic intermediates and gametes. Further experiments are required to establish whether this protein, currently of unknown function, plays a role in gamete formation and/or fusion.

H2B.V demarcates divergent strand-switch regions, some tDNA loci, and genome compartments in Trypanosoma cruzi and affects parasite differentiation and host cell invasion

Histone variants play a crucial role in chromatin structure organization and gene expression. Trypanosomatids have an unusual H2B variant (H2B.V) that is known to dimerize with the variant H2A.Z generating unstable nucleosomes. Previously, we found that H2B.V protein is enriched in tissue-derived trypomastigote (TCT) life forms, a nonreplicative stage of Trypanosoma cruzi, suggesting that this variant may contribute to the differences in chromatin structure and global transcription rates observed among parasite life forms. Here, we performed the first genome-wide profiling of histone localization in T. cruzi using epimastigotes and TCT life forms, and we found that H2B.V was preferentially located at the edges of divergent transcriptional strand switch regions, which encompass putative transcriptional start regions; at some tDNA loci; and between the conserved and disrupted genome compartments, mainly at trans-sialidase, mucin and MASP genes. Remarkably, the chromatin of TCT forms was depleted of H2B.V-enriched peaks in comparison to epimastigote forms. Interactome assays indicated that H2B.V associated specifically with H2A.Z, bromodomain factor 2, nucleolar proteins and a histone chaperone, among others. Parasites expressing reduced H2B.V levels were associated with higher rates of parasite differentiation and mammalian cell infectivity. Taken together, H2B.V demarcates critical genomic regions and associates with regulatory chromatin proteins, suggesting a scenario wherein local chromatin structures associated with parasite differentiation and invasion are regulated during the parasite life cycle.

The establishment of variant surface glycoprotein monoallelic expression revealed by single-cell RNA-seq of Trypanosoma brucei in the tsetse fly salivary glands

The long and complex Trypanosoma brucei development in the tsetse fly vector culminates when parasites gain mammalian infectivity in the salivary glands. A key step in this process is the establishment of monoallelic variant surface glycoprotein (VSG) expression and the formation of the VSG coat. The establishment of VSG monoallelic expression is complex and poorly understood, due to the multiple parasite stages present in the salivary glands. Therefore, we sought to further our understanding of this phenomenon by performing single-cell RNA-sequencing (scRNA-seq) on these trypanosome populations. We were able to capture the developmental program of trypanosomes in the salivary glands, identifying populations of epimastigote, gamete, pre-metacyclic and metacyclic cells. Our results show that parasite metabolism is dramatically remodeled during development in the salivary glands, with a shift in transcript abundance from tricarboxylic acid metabolism to glycolytic metabolism. Analysis of VSG gene expression in pre-metacyclic and metacyclic cells revealed a dynamic VSG gene activation program. Strikingly, we found that pre-metacyclic cells contain transcripts from multiple VSG genes, which resolves to singular VSG gene expression in mature metacyclic cells. Single molecule RNA fluorescence in situ hybridisation (smRNA-FISH) of VSG gene expression following in vitro metacyclogenesis confirmed this finding. Our data demonstrate that multiple VSG genes are transcribed before a single gene is chosen. We propose a transcriptional race model governs the initiation of monoallelic expression.

African trypanosomes are parasitic protists which cause endemic disease in sub-Saharan Africa. To evade mammalian immune responses the parasite has developed a system of antigenic variation, where the surface of the cell is covered in a tightly packed coat of variant surface glycoproteins (VSGs). Each cell expresses only one variant surface glycoprotein at a time, and this is periodically switched to evade new antibodies. The process of singular gene expression is termed monoallelic expression and this has two components, establishment and maintenance, i.e. how a single gene is selected for expression and how its singular expression is maintained throughout successive generations. The establishment of monoallelic VSG gene expression occurs in the salivary gland of the tsetse fly vector, although this process is not well understood. We used single cell gene expression profiling applied to thousands of single cells in the salivary gland of the fly. We show that in order to select a single gene, trypanosomes initially transcribe multiple VSGs before a single gene is selected for high-level expression. We propose a model where this process is driven by a race to accumulate transcription factors at a single VSG gene.

Developmental changes and metabolic reprogramming during establishment of infection and progression of Trypanosoma brucei brucei through its insect host

Trypanosoma brucei ssp., unicellular parasites causing human and animal trypanosomiasis, are transmitted between mammals by tsetse flies. Periodic changes in variant surface glycoproteins (VSG), which form the parasite coat in the mammal, allow them to evade the host immune response. Different isolates of T. brucei show heterogeneity in their repertoires of VSG genes and have single nucleotide polymorphisms and indels that can impact on genome editing. T. brucei brucei EATRO1125 (AnTaR1 serodeme) is an isolate that is used increasingly often because it is pleomorphic in mammals and fly transmissible, two characteristics that have been lost by the most commonly used laboratory stocks. We present a genome assembly of EATRO1125, including contigs for the intermediate chromosomes and minichromosomes that serve as repositories of VSG genes. In addition, de novo transcriptome assemblies were performed using Illumina sequences from tsetse-derived trypanosomes. Reads of 150 bases enabled closely related members of multigene families to be discriminated. This revealed that the transcriptome of midgut-derived parasites is dynamic, starting with the expression of high affinity hexose transporters and glycolytic enzymes and then switching to proline uptake and catabolism. These changes resemble the transition from early to late procyclic forms in culture. Further metabolic reprogramming, including upregulation of tricarboxylic acid cycle enzymes, occurs in the proventriculus. Many transcripts upregulated in the salivary glands encode surface proteins, among them 7 metacyclic VSGs, multiple BARPs and GCS1/HAP2, a marker for gametes. A novel family of transmembrane proteins, containing polythreonine stretches that are predicted to be O-glycosylation sites, was also identified. Finally, RNA-Seq data were used to create an optimised annotation file with 5’ and 3’ untranslated regions accurately mapped for 9302 genes. We anticipate that this will be of use in identifying transcripts obtained by single cell sequencing technologies.

Trypanosoma brucei ssp. are single-celled parasites that cause two tropical diseases: sleeping sickness in humans and nagana in domestic animals. Parasites survive in the host bloodstream because they periodically change their surface coats and also because they can switch from slender dividing forms to stumpy non-dividing forms. The latter can be transmitted to their second host, the tsetse fly. Although closely related, different geographical isolates differ in their repertoire of surface coats and have small, but important differences in their DNA sequences. In addition, laboratory strains that are transferred between mammals by needle passage lose the ability to produce stumpy forms and to infect flies. The isolate T. b. brucei EATRO1125 is often used for research as it produces stumpy forms and is fly transmissible. We provide an assembly of the genome of this isolate, including part of the repertoire of coat proteins, and a detailed analysis of the genes that the parasites express as they establish infection and progress through the fly. This has provided new insights into trypanosome biology. The combined genomic (DNA) and transcriptomic (RNA) data will be useful resources for the trypanosome research community.

TbSAP is a novel chromatin protein repressing metacyclic variant surface glycoprotein expression sites in bloodstream form Trypanosoma brucei

The African trypanosome Trypanosoma brucei is a unicellular eukaryote, which relies on a protective variant surface glycoprotein (VSG) coat for survival in the mammalian host. A single trypanosome has >2000 VSG genes and pseudogenes of which only one is expressed from one of ∼15 telomeric bloodstream form expression sites (BESs). Infectious metacyclic trypanosomes present within the tsetse fly vector also express VSG from a separate set of telomeric metacyclic ESs (MESs). All MESs are silenced in bloodstream form T. brucei. As very little is known about how this is mediated, we performed a whole genome RNAi library screen to identify MES repressors. This allowed us to identify a novel SAP domain containing DNA binding protein which we called TbSAP. TbSAP is enriched at the nuclear periphery and binds both MESs and BESs. Knockdown of TbSAP in bloodstream form trypanosomes did not result in cells becoming more ‘metacyclic-like'. Instead, there was extensive global upregulation of transcripts including MES VSGs, VSGs within the silent VSG arrays as well as genes immediately downstream of BES promoters. TbSAP therefore appears to be a novel chromatin protein playing an important role in silencing the extensive VSG repertoire of bloodstream form T. brucei.

Identification of positive and negative regulators in the stepwise developmental progression towards infectivity in Trypanosoma brucei

Trypanosoma brucei is a protozoan parasite that causes important human and livestock diseases in sub-Saharan Africa. By overexpressing a single RNA-binding protein, RBP6, in non-infectious procyclics trypanosomes, we previously recapitulated in vitro the events occurring in the tsetse fly vector, namely the development of epimastigotes and infectious, quiescent metacyclic parasites. To identify genes involved in this developmental progression, we individually targeted 86 transcripts by RNAi in the RBP6 overexpression cell line and assessed the loss-of-function phenotypes on repositioning the kinetoplast, an organelle that contains the mitochondrial genome, the expression of BARP or brucei alanine rich protein, a marker for epimastigotes, and metacyclic variant surface glycoprotein. This screen identified 22 genes that positively or negatively regulate the stepwise progression towards infectivity at different stages. Two previously uncharacterized putative nucleic acid binding proteins emerged as potent regulators, namely the cold shock domain-containing proteins CSD1 and CSD2. RNA-Seq data from a selected group of cell lines further revealed that the components of gene expression regulatory networks identified in this study affected the abundance of a subset of transcripts in very similar fashion. Finally, our data suggest a considerable overlap between the genes that regulate the formation of stumpy bloodstream form trypanosomes and the genes that govern the development of metacyclic form parasites.

Nucleosome landscape reflects phenotypic differences in Trypanosoma cruzi life forms

Trypanosoma cruzi alternates between replicative and nonreplicative life forms, accompanied by a shift in global transcription levels and by changes in the nuclear architecture, the chromatin proteome and histone posttranslational modifications. To gain further insights into the epigenetic regulation that accompanies life form changes, we performed genome-wide high-resolution nucleosome mapping using two T. cruzi life forms (epimastigotes and cellular trypomastigotes). By combining a powerful pipeline that allowed us to faithfully compare nucleosome positioning and occupancy, more than 125 thousand nucleosomes were mapped, and approximately 20% of them differed between replicative and nonreplicative forms. The nonreplicative forms have less dynamic nucleosomes, possibly reflecting their lower global transcription levels and DNA replication arrest. However, dynamic nucleosomes are enriched at nonreplicative regulatory transcription initiation regions and at multigenic family members, which are associated with infective-stage and virulence factors. Strikingly, dynamic nucleosome regions are associated with GO terms related to nuclear division, translation, gene regulation and metabolism and, notably, associated with transcripts with different expression levels among life forms. Finally, the nucleosome landscape reflects the steady-state transcription expression: more abundant genes have a more deeply nucleosome-depleted region at putative 5' splice sites, likely associated with trans-splicing efficiency. Taken together, our results indicate that chromatin architecture, defined primarily by nucleosome positioning and occupancy, reflects the phenotypic differences found among T. cruzi life forms despite the lack of a canonical transcriptional control context.

Developmental regulation of edited CYb and COIII mitochondrial mRNAs is achieved by distinct mechanisms in Trypanosoma brucei

Trypanosoma brucei is a parasitic protozoan that undergoes a complex life cycle involving insect and mammalian hosts that present dramatically different nutritional environments. Mitochondrial metabolism and gene expression are highly regulated to accommodate these environmental changes, including regulation of mRNAs that require extensive uridine insertion/deletion (U-indel) editing for their maturation. Here, we use high throughput sequencing and a method for promoting life cycle changes in vitro to assess the mechanisms and timing of developmentally regulated edited mRNA expression. We show that edited CYb mRNA is downregulated in mammalian bloodstream forms (BSF) at the level of editing initiation and/or edited mRNA stability. In contrast, edited COIII mRNAs are depleted in BSF by inhibition of editing progression. We identify cell line-specific differences in the mechanisms abrogating COIII mRNA editing, including the possible utilization of terminator gRNAs that preclude the 3' to 5' progression of editing. By examining the developmental timing of altered mitochondrial mRNA levels, we also reveal transcript-specific developmental checkpoints in epimastigote (EMF), metacyclic (MCF), and BSF. These studies represent the first analysis of the mechanisms governing edited mRNA levels during T. brucei development and the first to interrogate U-indel editing in EMF and MCF life cycle stages.

Cell-based and multi-omics profiling reveals dynamic metabolic repurposing of mitochondria to drive developmental progression of Trypanosoma brucei

Mitochondrial metabolic remodeling is a hallmark of the Trypanosoma brucei digenetic life cycle because the insect stage utilizes a cost-effective oxidative phosphorylation (OxPhos) to generate ATP, while bloodstream cells switch to aerobic glycolysis. Due to difficulties in acquiring enough parasites from the tsetse fly vector, the dynamics of the parasite's metabolic rewiring in the vector have remained obscure. Here, we took advantage of in vitro-induced differentiation to follow changes at the RNA, protein, and metabolite levels. This multi-omics and cell-based profiling showed an immediate redirection of electron flow from the cytochrome-mediated pathway to an alternative oxidase (AOX), an increase in proline consumption, elevated activity of complex II, and certain tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle enzymes, which led to mitochondrial membrane hyperpolarization and increased reactive oxygen species (ROS) levels. Interestingly, these ROS molecules appear to act as signaling molecules driving developmental progression because ectopic expression of catalase, a ROS scavenger, halted the in vitro-induced differentiation. Our results provide insights into the mechanisms of the parasite's mitochondrial rewiring and reinforce the emerging concept that mitochondria act as signaling organelles through release of ROS to drive cellular differentiation.

Single-cell RNA sequencing of Trypanosoma brucei from tsetse salivary glands unveils metacyclogenesis and identifies potential transmission blocking antigens

Tsetse-transmitted African trypanosomes must develop into mammalian-infectious metacyclic cells in the fly's salivary glands (SGs) before transmission to a new host. The molecular mechanisms that underlie this developmental process, known as metacyclogenesis, are poorly understood. Blocking the few metacyclic parasites deposited in saliva from further development in the mammal could prevent disease. To obtain an in-depth perspective of metacyclogenesis, we performed single-cell RNA sequencing (scRNA-seq) from a pool of 2,045 parasites collected from infected tsetse SGs. Our data revealed three major cell clusters that represent the epimastigote, and pre- and mature metacyclic trypanosome developmental stages. Individual cell level data also confirm that the metacyclic pool is diverse, and that each parasite expresses only one of the unique metacyclic variant surface glycoprotein (mVSG) coat protein transcripts identified. Further clustering of cells revealed a dynamic transcriptomic and metabolic landscape reflective of a developmental program leading to infectious metacyclic forms preadapted to survive in the mammalian host environment. We describe the expression profile of proteins that regulate gene expression and that potentially play a role in metacyclogenesis. We also report on a family of nonvariant surface proteins (Fam10) and demonstrate surface localization of one member (named SGM1.7) on mature metacyclic parasites. Vaccination of mice with recombinant SGM1.7 reduced parasitemia early in the infection. Future studies are warranted to investigate Fam10 family proteins as potential trypanosome transmission blocking vaccine antigens. Our experimental approach is translationally relevant for developing strategies to prevent other insect saliva-transmitted parasites from infecting and causing disease in mammalian hosts.

The zinc finger proteins ZC3H20 and ZC3H21 stabilise mRNAs encoding membrane proteins and mitochondrial proteins in insect-form Trypanosoma brucei

ZC3H20 and ZC3H21 are related trypanosome proteins with two C(x)₈ C(x)₅ C(x)₃ H zinc finger motifs. ZC3H20 is present at a low level in replicating mammalian-infective bloodstream forms, but becomes more abundant when they undergo growth arrest at high density; ZC3H21 appears only in the procyclic form of the parasite, which infects Tsetse flies. Each protein binds to several hundred mRNAs, with overlapping but not identical specificities. Both increase expression of bound mRNAs, probably through recruitment of the MKT1-PBP1 complex. At least 28 of the bound mRNAs decrease after depletion of ZC3H20, or of ZC3H20 and ZC3H21 together; their products include procyclic-specific proteins of the plasma membrane and energy metabolism. Simultaneous depletion of ZC3H20 and ZC3H21 causes procyclic forms to shrink and stop growing; in addition to decreases in target mRNAs, there are other changes suggestive of loss of developmental regulation. The bloodstream-form-specific protein RBP10 controls ZC3H20 and ZC3H21 expression. Interestingly, some ZC3H20/21 target mRNAs also bind to and are repressed by RBP10, allowing for dynamic regulation as RBP10 decreases and ZC3H20 and ZC3H21 increase during differentiation.

Unexpected diversity in eukaryotic transcription revealed by the retrotransposon hotspot family of Trypanosoma brucei

The path from DNA to RNA to protein in eukaryotes is guided by a series of factors linking transcription, mRNA export and translation. Many of these are conserved from yeast to humans. Trypanosomatids, which diverged early in the eukaryotic lineage, exhibit unusual features such as polycistronic transcription and trans-splicing of all messenger RNAs. They possess basal transcription factors, but lack recognisable orthologues of many factors required for transcription elongation and mRNA export. We show that retrotransposon hotspot (RHS) proteins fulfil some of these functions and that their depletion globally impairs nascent RNA synthesis by RNA polymerase II. Three sub-families are part of a coordinated process in which RHS6 is most closely associated with chromatin, RHS4 is part of the Pol II complex and RHS2 connects transcription with the translation machinery. In summary, our results show that the components of eukaryotic transcription are far from being universal, and reveal unsuspected plasticity in the course of evolution.

The vault RNA of Trypanosoma brucei plays a role in the production of trans-spliced mRNA

The vault ribonucleoprotein (RNP), comprising vault RNA (vtRNA) and telomerase-associated protein 1 (TEP1), is found in many eukaryotes. However, previous studies of vtRNAs, for example in mammalian cells, have failed to reach a definitive conclusion about their function. vtRNAs are related to Y RNAs, which are complexed with Ro protein and influence Ro's function in noncoding RNA (ncRNA) quality control and processing. In Trypanosoma brucei, the small noncoding TBsRNA-10 was first described in a survey of the ncRNA repertoire in this organism. Here, we report that TBsRNA-10 in T. brucei is a vtRNA, based on its association with TEP1 and sequence similarity to those of other known and predicted vtRNAs. We observed that like vtRNAs in other species, TBsRNA-10 is transcribed by RNA polymerase III, which in trypanosomes also generates the spliceosomal U-rich small nuclear RNAs. In T. brucei, spliced leader (SL)-mediated trans-splicing of pre-mRNAs is an obligatory step in gene expression, and we found here that T. brucei's vtRNA is highly enriched in a non-nucleolar locus in the cell nucleus implicated in SL RNP biogenesis. Using a newly developed permeabilized cell system for the bloodstream form of T. brucei, we show that down-regulated vtRNA levels impair trans-spliced mRNA production, consistent with a role of vtRNA in trypanosome mRNA metabolism. Our results suggest a common theme for the functions of vtRNAs and Y RNAs. We conclude that by complexing with their protein-binding partners TEP1 and Ro, respectively, these two RNA species modulate the metabolism of various RNA classes.

The suppressive cap-binding complex factor 4EIP is required for normal differentiation

Trypanosoma brucei live in mammals as bloodstream forms and in the Tsetse midgut as procyclic forms. Differentiation from one form to the other proceeds via a growth-arrested stumpy form with low messenger RNA (mRNA) content and translation. The parasites have six eIF4Es and five eIF4Gs. EIF4E1 pairs with the mRNA-binding protein 4EIP but not with any EIF4G. EIF4E1 and 4EIP each inhibit expression when tethered to a reporter mRNA, but while tethered EIF4E1 suppresses only when 4EIP is present, suppression by tethered 4EIP does not require the interaction with EIF4E1. In growing bloodstream forms, 4EIP is preferentially associated with unstable mRNAs. Bloodstream- or procyclic-form trypanosomes lacking 4EIP have only a marginal growth disadvantage. Bloodstream forms without 4EIP are, however, defective in translation suppression during stumpy-form differentiation and cannot subsequently convert to growing procyclic forms. Intriguingly, the differentiation defect can be complemented by a truncated 4EIP that does not interact with EIF4E1. In contrast, bloodstream forms lacking EIF4E1 have a growth defect, stumpy formation seems normal, but they appear unable to grow as procyclic forms. We suggest that 4EIP and EIF4E1 fine-tune mRNA levels in growing cells, and that 4EIP contributes to translation suppression during differentiation to the stumpy form.

Regulation of gene expression in trypanosomatids: living with polycistronic transcription

In trypanosomes, RNA polymerase II transcription is polycistronic and individual mRNAs are excised by trans-splicing and polyadenylation. The lack of individual gene transcription control is compensated by control of mRNA processing, translation and degradation. Although the basic mechanisms of mRNA decay and translation are evolutionarily conserved, there are also unique aspects, such as the existence of six cap-binding translation initiation factor homologues, a novel decapping enzyme and an mRNA stabilizing complex that is recruited by RNA-binding proteins. High-throughput analyses have identified nearly a hundred regulatory mRNA-binding proteins, making trypanosomes valuable as a model system to investigate post-transcriptional regulation.

Gluconeogenesis is essential for trypanosome development in the tsetse fly vector

In the glucose-free environment that is the midgut of the tsetse fly vector, the procyclic form of Trypanosoma brucei primarily uses proline to feed its central carbon and energy metabolism. In these conditions, the parasite needs to produce glucose 6-phosphate (G6P) through gluconeogenesis from metabolism of non-glycolytic carbon source(s). We showed here that two phosphoenolpyruvate-producing enzymes, PEP carboxykinase (PEPCK) and pyruvate phosphate dikinase (PPDK) have a redundant function for the essential gluconeogenesis from proline. Indeed, incorporation of 13C-enriched proline into G6P was abolished in the PEPCK/PPDK null double mutant (Δppdk/Δpepck), but not in the single Δppdk and Δpepck mutant cell lines. The procyclic trypanosome also uses the glycerol conversion pathway to feed gluconeogenesis, since the death of the Δppdk/Δpepck double null mutant in glucose-free conditions is only observed after RNAi-mediated down-regulation of the expression of the glycerol kinase, the first enzyme of the glycerol conversion pathways. Deletion of the gene encoding fructose-1,6-bisphosphatase (Δfbpase), a key gluconeogenic enzyme irreversibly producing fructose 6-phosphate from fructose 1,6-bisphosphate, considerably reduced, but not abolished, incorporation of 13C-enriched proline into G6P. In addition, the Δfbpase cell line is viable in glucose-free conditions, suggesting that an alternative pathway can be used for G6P production in vitro. However, FBPase is essential in vivo, as shown by the incapacity of the Δfbpase null mutant to colonise the fly vector salivary glands, while the parental phenotype is restored in the Δfbpase rescued cell line re-expressing FBPase. The essential role of FBPase for the development of T. brucei in the tsetse was confirmed by taking advantage of an in vitro differentiation assay based on the RNA-binding protein 6 over-expression, in which the procyclic forms differentiate into epimastigote forms but not into mammalian-infective metacyclic parasites. In total, morphology, immunofluorescence and cytometry analyses showed that the differentiation of the epimastigote stages into the metacyclic forms is abolished in the Δfbpase mutant.

Temperature shift activates bloodstream VSG expression site promoters in Trypanosoma brucei

Trypanosoma brucei relies on two types of variant surface glycoprotein (VSG) expression sites (ESs) for RNA polymerase I (Pol I) transcription of VSG pre-mRNA. Trypanosomes developing into infectious metacyclic cells in the tsetse vector use metacyclic VSG ESs (MESs) and proliferating parasites in the mammalian host deploy bloodstream VSG ESs (BESs). Unlike the monocistronic MESs, BESs are polycistronic and their highly conserved promoters differ considerably from the MES promoters. The significance of the divergent sequences of MES and BES promoters remains to be determined. We used a reporter system to specifically test the effect of temperature on the activity of MES and BES promoters in procyclic trypanosomes and our results demonstrate that transcription from the MES promoter is largely insensitive to changes in temperature. In contrast, the BES promoter drives rapid activation of transcription upon a change of temperature from 28 °C to 37 °C. Additionally, endogenous BESs respond similarly to the elevation of temperature and initiate increased production of BES pre-mRNA and mRNA. Our results indicate that the sequence of the BES promoter is a specificity signal which triggers BES activation in vivo upon entry into the mammalian host.

A single-point mutation in the RNA-binding protein 6 generates Trypanosoma brucei metacyclics that are able to progress to bloodstream forms in vitro

We previously established an in vitro differentiation system based on the inducible expression of the RNA binding protein 6 (RBP6), which initiated differentiation of Trypanosoma brucei non-infectious procyclics to infectious metacyclics (MFs). However, further differentiation to bloodstream forms (BFs) required infection of mice. Here we report the serendipitous isolation of a single point mutation in RBP6 (Q109K), whose expression not only generated MFs, but purified MFs continued the developmental cycle in vitro to BFs expressing variant surface glycoprotein-2 (VSG-2), formerly known as VSG 221. This transition occurred over a period of 11 days and by RNA-Seq, VSG-2 was first measureable on day 1, whereas metacyclic VSGs were detected up to 8 days. We further showed that inducible expression of mutant RBP6 appeared to skip the intermediate epimastigote stage and we highlight the potential involvement of RBP33 in the establishment of metacyclics and in particular in the generation of metacyclics uncharacteristically arrested at the G2/M checkpoint.

Differential expression analysis of transcriptome data of Trypanosoma brucei RBP6 induction in procyclics leading to infectious metacyclics and bloodstream forms in vitro

We used an in vitro system based on the inducible expression of the RNA binding protein 6 (RBP6) to monitor transcriptome changes during the differentiation of Trypanosoma brucei from non-infectious procyclics to infectious metacyclics and from metacyclics to bloodstream forms. This data file describes the bioinformatics analysis of 20 distinct RNA-Seq samples, with four biological replicates each, highlighting differential transcript abundance. Additional functional annotation analysis using Gene Ontology is also presented. Complete raw data files were deposited at the NCBI Sequence Read Archive - SRA at http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/Traces/sra/sra.cgi with accession numbers: SRP153824, SRP153562, and SRP152737.

RNA-Seq analysis validates the use of culture-derived Trypanosoma brucei and provides new markers for mammalian and insect life-cycle stages

Background

Trypanosoma brucei brucei, the parasite causing Nagana in domestic animals, is closely related to the parasites causing sleeping sickness, but does not infect humans. In addition to its importance as a pathogen, the relative ease of genetic manipulation and an innate capacity for RNAi extend its use as a model organism in cell and infection biology. During its development in its mammalian and insect (tsetse fly) hosts, T. b. brucei passes through several different life-cycle stages. There are currently four life-cycle stages that can be cultured: slender forms and stumpy forms, which are equivalent to forms found in the mammal, and early and late procyclic forms, which are equivalent to forms in the tsetse midgut. Early procyclic forms show coordinated group movement (social motility) on semi-solid surfaces, whereas late procyclic forms do not.

Results

RNA-Seq was performed on biological replicates of each life-cycle stage. These constitute the first datasets for culture-derived slender and stumpy bloodstream forms and early and late procyclic forms. Expression profiles confirmed that genes known to be stage-regulated in the animal and insect hosts were also regulated in culture. Sequence reads of 100–125 bases provided sufficient precision to uncover differential expression of closely related genes. More than 100 transcripts showed peak expression in stumpy forms, including adenylate cyclases and several components of inositol metabolism. Early and late procyclic forms showed differential expression of 73 transcripts, a number of which encoded proteins that were previously shown to be stage-regulated. Moreover, two adenylate cyclases previously shown to reduce social motility are up-regulated in late procyclic forms.

Conclusions

This study validates the use of cultured bloodstream forms as alternatives to animal-derived parasites and yields new markers for all four stages. In addition to underpinning recent findings that early and late procyclic forms are distinct life-cycle stages, it could provide insights into the reasons for their different biological properties.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (10.1186/s12864-018-4600-6) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Codon choice directs constitutive mRNA levels in trypanosomes

Selective transcription of individual protein coding genes does not occur in trypanosomes and the cellular copy number of each mRNA must be determined post-transcriptionally. Here, we provide evidence that codon choice directs the levels of constitutively expressed mRNAs. First, a novel codon usage metric, the gene expression codon adaptation index (geCAI), was developed that maximised the relationship between codon choice and the measured abundance for a transcriptome. Second, geCAI predictions of mRNA levels were tested using differently coded GFP transgenes and were successful over a 25-fold range, similar to the variation in endogenous mRNAs. Third, translation was necessary for the accelerated mRNA turnover resulting from codon choice. Thus, in trypanosomes, the information determining the levels of most mRNAs resides in the open reading frame and translation is required to access this information.

Codon usage bias controls mRNA and protein abundance in trypanosomatids

Protein abundance differs from a few to millions of copies per cell. Trypanosoma brucei presents an excellent model for studies on codon bias and differential gene expression because transcription is broadly unregulated and uniform across the genome. T. brucei is also a major human and animal protozoal pathogen. Here, an experimental assessment, using synthetic reporter genes, revealed that GC3 codons have a major positive impact on both mRNA and protein abundance. Our estimates of relative expression, based on coding sequences alone (codon usage and sequence length), are within 2-fold of the observed values for the majority of measured cellular mRNAs (n > 7000) and proteins (n > 2000). Our estimates also correspond with expression measures from published transcriptome and proteome datasets from other trypanosomatids. We conclude that codon usage is a key factor affecting global relative mRNA and protein expression in trypanosomatids and that relative abundance can be effectively estimated using only protein coding sequences.