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Delorme N, Lefèvre B, Raffin V. Relative Age Effects and Self-Organized Sport Practices Among Adults. RESEARCH QUARTERLY FOR EXERCISE AND SPORT 2024; 95:384-390. [PMID: 37463234 DOI: 10.1080/02701367.2023.2222772] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2022] [Accepted: 05/31/2023] [Indexed: 07/20/2023]
Abstract
Purpose: Given that previous research on relative age effects (RAEs) has only focused on organized sport, the aim of this exploratory study was to examine whether this phenomenon also existed among self-organized practitioners. In relation to that, a second aim was to know whether self-organized sport practices could be favored by late-born practitioners as a result of a strategic adaptation. Method(s): Representative sub-samples of 474 soccer players, 363 basketball players, 2,536 swimmers, 1,788 strength training practitioners, 1,873 pétanque players, 973 table tennis players and 2,136 runners were analyzed. Results: The results did not show any significant RAEs, including in sport practices that are sensitive to this phenomenon such as soccer or basketball. The results did not show any significant overrepresentation of late-born people either. Conclusion: This study suggests that self-organized sport practices are not impacted by the RAEs. This finding is interesting because self-organized sport practice is the most important one in numbers.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Valérie Raffin
- Institut National de la Jeunesse Et de l'Education Populaire
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Huard Pelletier V, Lemoyne J. Perceived competence in ice hockey and its associations with relative age, early sport specialization, and players' position. Front Psychol 2024; 15:1336529. [PMID: 38333060 PMCID: PMC10850288 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1336529] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/10/2023] [Accepted: 01/11/2024] [Indexed: 02/10/2024] Open
Abstract
Introduction Ice hockey is a sport that has gained much attention in recent times, particularly concerning the development of young players. In the domain of youth sport development, one significant factor that must be considered is the perceived competence of players. This variable is closely linked to positive psychological outcomes and sustained practice. However, there is a lack of understanding about how other important developmental factors such as age, early sport specialization, players' position and relative age affect players' perceived competence. Therefore, the objective of this study is to explore the relationships between these developmental factors, perceived ice hockey competence and a global measure of perceived sport competence. Methods Data was drawn from 971 players (14.78 ± 1.61 mean age), who completed on-line questionnaires, from which we conducted path analyses involving all variables. Results Younger players tend to display higher perceived competence scores than older players. Additionally, players who opted to specialize earlier also reported higher perceived competence. Furthermore, forwards and defensemen had differing perceptions of their competence, which was in line with their respective roles on the ice. The study also showed relative age effects, in which players who were born earlier relative to the selection period tend to perceive themselves more advantageously in three components of perceived competence. Discussion Based on these findings, several recommendations are proposed for coaches and decision-makers to encourage the positive development of ice hockey players. The study highlights that ice hockey-specific competencies are influenced by various factors, such as early sport specialization, relative age effect, player age, and position.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vincent Huard Pelletier
- Laboratoire de Recherche sur le Hockey de l’UQTR, Université du Québec à Trois-Rivières, Trois-Rivières, QC, Canada
- Département des sciences de l’activité physique, Université du Québec à Trois-Rivières, Trois-Rivières, QC, Canada
| | - Jean Lemoyne
- Laboratoire de Recherche sur le Hockey de l’UQTR, Université du Québec à Trois-Rivières, Trois-Rivières, QC, Canada
- Département des sciences de l’activité physique, Université du Québec à Trois-Rivières, Trois-Rivières, QC, Canada
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Smith KL, Jackson D, Weir PL. Relative Age and Positive Youth Development in Youth Sport: Do Developmental Assets Play a Role in Creating Advantage Reversals in Female Soccer? Sports (Basel) 2024; 12:30. [PMID: 38251304 PMCID: PMC10819271 DOI: 10.3390/sports12010030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/04/2023] [Revised: 01/05/2024] [Accepted: 01/10/2024] [Indexed: 01/23/2024] Open
Abstract
Relative age effects (RAEs) are commonly associated with advantages for older athletes. However, a variety of benefits attributed to 'advantage reversals' have been observed among relatively younger professional athletes. Considering psychosocial development as a proposed mechanism, the purpose of this study was twofold: (1) To explore an association between developmental assets (i.e., facilitators of positive youth development [PYD]) and RAEs; (2) To assess whether overall developmental asset levels are protective against sport dropout. The Developmental Assets Profile© was distributed to members of a one-year cohort of post-adolescent, female soccer players from Ontario, Canada. The presence of differences between groups of relatively older (H1; n = 64) and younger (H2; n = 57) participants and developmental asset scales were assessed using discriminant analysis. A binary logistic regression was conducted to assess whether overall developmental asset levels are protective against sport dropout, with consideration of relevant factors. Findings suggest that relatively younger, female players score higher in two internal categories: commitment to learning and positive values. The overall developmental asset scores were not found to be protective against dropout. This study provides preliminary, albeit cautious, support that 'advantage reversals' may be in part associated with enhanced PYD resulting from developmental sport experiences.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kristy L. Smith
- Department of Kinesiology, University of Windsor, Windsor, ON N9B 3P4, Canada;
| | - Dennis Jackson
- Department of Psychology, University of Windsor, Windsor, ON N9B 3P4, Canada;
| | - Patricia L. Weir
- Department of Kinesiology, University of Windsor, Windsor, ON N9B 3P4, Canada;
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Rüeger E, Javet M, Born DP, Heyer L, Romann M. Why age categories in youth sport should be eliminated: Insights from performance development of youth female long jumpers. Front Physiol 2023; 14:1051208. [PMID: 36760524 PMCID: PMC9905234 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2023.1051208] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/22/2022] [Accepted: 01/13/2023] [Indexed: 01/27/2023] Open
Abstract
Long-term sports participation and performance development are major issues in popular sports and talent development programs. This study aimed to provide longitudinal trends in youth female long jump performance development, participation, and relative age effects (RAEs), as longitudinal data for female athletes are missing. 51'894 season's best results of female long jump athletes (n = 16'189) were acquired from the Swiss Athletics online database and analyzed within a range of 6-22 years of age. To examine longitudinal performance development and RAEs, data from athletes who participated in at least three seasons were selected (n = 41'253) and analyzed. Performance development was analyzed using age groups (AGs) and exact chronological age (CA) at competition. Differences between performances of birth quarters were analyzed using 83% confidence intervals (CIs) and smallest worthwhile change. Odds ratios (ORs) with 95% CI were used to quantify RAEs. With the traditional classification into age groups (AG), performances of athletes born between January and March (Q1) were significantly better than those born between October and December (Q4) from U8 to U17. Using exact CA resulted in similar performances in Q1 and Q4 until the U20 age category. The peak of participation was reached in the U12 category, and then decreased until the U23 category with a substantial drop at U17. Significant RAEs were observed from U8 to U19 and at U22. RAEs continuously decreased from U8 (large effect) to U14 (small effect). The present results show that differences in performance arise from the comparison of athletes in AGs. Thus, going beyond AGs and using exact CA, Q4 athletes could benefit from a realistic performance comparison, which promotes fair performance evaluation, un-biased talent development, realistic feedback, and long-term participation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eva Rüeger
- Swiss Federal Institute of Sport Magglingen SFISM, Magglingen, Switzerland
| | - Marie Javet
- Swiss Federal Institute of Sport Magglingen SFISM, Magglingen, Switzerland
| | - Dennis-Peter Born
- Swiss Federal Institute of Sport Magglingen SFISM, Magglingen, Switzerland,Swiss Swimming Federation, Ittigen, Switzerland
| | - Louis Heyer
- Swiss Federal Institute of Sport Magglingen SFISM, Magglingen, Switzerland,Swiss Athletics Federation, Ittigen, Switzerland
| | - Michael Romann
- Swiss Federal Institute of Sport Magglingen SFISM, Magglingen, Switzerland,*Correspondence: Michael Romann,
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Does Relative Age Influence Organized Sport and Unorganized Physical Activity Participation in a Cohort of Adolescents? Sports (Basel) 2022; 10:sports10070097. [PMID: 35878108 PMCID: PMC9320348 DOI: 10.3390/sports10070097] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/2022] [Revised: 06/19/2022] [Accepted: 06/21/2022] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Despite their prevalence, the longitudinal impacts of relative age effects (RAEs) on sport and other forms of physical activity (PA) are understudied. This study examined longitudinal participation patterns in organized sport (team and individual), unorganized PA, and non-participation with respect to RAEs in a prospective cohort of adolescents. Data from the first 24 cycles of the MATCH study were used for analyses. Elementary students (n = 929) were recruited from 17 schools in Atlantic Canada. Respondents self-reported PA three times/year. Mixed multilevel logistic models compared the likelihood of participating in each context across birth quarter. Chronological age and gender were considered, along with the interaction between chronological and relative age. Individuals born in Quarter 1/Quarter 2 were more likely to report participation in organized team sport but not individual sports. Relatively older participants born in Quarter 2 were more likely to report participation in unorganized PA. Increasing chronological age was associated with decreased participation in organized sport (particularly team-based) and increased non-participation. Gender was not associated with organized sport participation, but girls were under-represented in unorganized PA and more likely to report non-participation. The interaction parameters suggested that RAEs were consistent throughout adolescence in each context. Longitudinal analyses suggest RAEs are context dependent.
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Smith KL, Weir PL. An Examination of Relative Age and Athlete Dropout in Female Developmental Soccer. Sports (Basel) 2022; 10:sports10050079. [PMID: 35622488 PMCID: PMC9148022 DOI: 10.3390/sports10050079] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/23/2022] [Revised: 05/05/2022] [Accepted: 05/10/2022] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Sport dropout rates among children and youth are a concern for researchers and policy makers. The impact of relative age effects (RAEs) on dropout trends has not been adequately examined in female samples. The purpose of this study was to longitudinally examine dropout in a female soccer cohort in Ontario, Canada. Registration entries for a one-year cohort were examined across a seven-year period (n = 9908; age 10–16 years). A chi-square analysis established the presence of RAEs in the initial year of registration. Survival analyses assessed the impact of relative age, competition level, and community size on athlete dropout. A median survival rate of four years was observed for players born in the first quartile, while all remaining quartiles had a median survival of three years. Community size did not predict dropout in this analysis; however, competition level was a significant predictor, with competitive players being more likely to remain engaged vs. recreational players (55.9% vs. 20.7%). The observed trends are likely to have a significant impact from both a healthy development and systems perspective (e.g., economic/market loss). Intervention is needed to mitigate current dropout trends in female athletes. Practical applications are discussed.
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Amiot CE, Skerlj F. The Role of Dynamic Social Norms in Promoting the Internalization of Sportspersonship Behaviors and Values and Psychological Well-Being in Ice Hockey. Front Psychol 2021; 12:744797. [PMID: 34803827 PMCID: PMC8595139 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.744797] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2021] [Accepted: 10/08/2021] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Conducted among parents of young ice hockey players, this field experiment tested if making salient increasingly popular (i.e., dynamic) social norms that promote sportspersonship, learning, and having fun in sports, increases parents' own self-determined endorsement of these behaviors and values, improves their psychological well-being, and impacts on their children's on-ice behaviors. Hockey parents (N = 98) were randomly assigned to the experimental condition (i.e., presenting dynamic norms that increasingly favor sportspersonship, learning, and fun) vs. control condition (i.e., presenting neutral information). Parents' motivations for encouraging their child to learn and to have fun in hockey were then assessed. Score sheets for the games that followed the study provided access to their children's on-ice behaviors (i.e., penalties), as indicators of sportspersonship. Parents in the experimental condition reported higher self-determination for encouraging their child to learn and have fun in hockey compared to parents in the control condition. Furthermore, children of parents in the experimental condition had more assists. A mediation model revealed that the dynamic norms manipulation increased parents' self-determined motivation for encouraging their child to learn and to have fun in hockey, which in turn, predicted higher psychological well-being (i.e., lower anxiety, more vitality). Together, these results provide support for the contention that highlighting increasingly popular social norms that promote sportspersonship, learning, and fun in sports, represents a promising strategy for creating positive social change in this life context.
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Affiliation(s)
- Catherine E. Amiot
- Department of Psychology, Université du Québec à Montréal, Montréal, QC, Canada
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Gil SM, Bidaurrazaga-Letona I, Larruskain J, Esain I, Irazusta J. The relative age effect in young athletes: A countywide analysis of 9-14-year-old participants in all competitive sports. PLoS One 2021; 16:e0254687. [PMID: 34270609 PMCID: PMC8284647 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0254687] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/24/2020] [Accepted: 07/02/2021] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
The relative age effect (RAE) has primarily been investigated in male athletes involved in popular sports and high-level competitions. However, occurrence of RAE in other types of sports at the grassroots level, particularly in female athletes, is less well-studied. Thus, we examined the RAE in a large cohort of young athletes who participated in all competitive sports in Bizkaia, Spain, according to gender and specificity of the sport. The birth dates of 38,381 participants (65.1% males and 34.9% females) aged 9–14 years old in 37 competitive sports were analyzed. Birth dates were divided into four birth-quarters and compared to those of all children born in the same period using a χ2 goodness-of-fit test and standardized residuals. The effect size Cramer’s V was measured, and odds ratio and 95% confidence intervals were calculated to determine the odds of athletes born in January playing in the highest leagues. In the total sample, in boys RAE was evident in football, but only in higher-competition leagues (p<0.001, large effect size). In girls, RAE was evident in the most popular team sports: basketball (p<0.001, large effect size in basketball 1st league), handball and football (p<0.05, both small effect sizes). Players born in January were 3.23- and 2.89-times more likely to play in the 1st leagues than those born in December, for boys (football) and girls (basketball) respectively. In the overall analysis and in the remaining sports, presence of RAE was negligible. Therefore, the date of birth does not seem to be a constraint to participating in most sports in Bizkaia. The potential mechanisms for RAE are multifactorial and complex, yet a combination of factors, such as the popularity of a sport and the depth of competition, physicality and social influences may be involved. We discuss these mechanisms and potential measures to mitigate RAE.
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Affiliation(s)
- Susana M. Gil
- Department of Physiology, Faculty of Medicine and Nursing, University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU), Leioa, Spain
- * E-mail:
| | - Iraia Bidaurrazaga-Letona
- Department of Physiology, Faculty of Medicine and Nursing, University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU), Leioa, Spain
| | | | - Izaro Esain
- Department of Physiology, Faculty of Medicine and Nursing, University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU), Leioa, Spain
| | - Jon Irazusta
- Department of Physiology, Faculty of Medicine and Nursing, University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU), Leioa, Spain
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Loffing F, Schorer J. Handedness and Relative Age in International Elite Interactive Individual Sports Revisited. Front Sports Act Living 2021; 3:662203. [PMID: 33870189 PMCID: PMC8044324 DOI: 10.3389/fspor.2021.662203] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2021] [Accepted: 02/22/2021] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Relative age effects (RAE) describe the unintended side effect of annual age grouping such that athletes born close to a specific cutoff date are more likely to be associated with attaining higher performance status than athletes born later. One factor suggested to override the RAE is handedness. Given the left-handers' rarity and their proposed performance advantage in interactive sports, left-handedness may be associated with a lower likelihood of suffering from selection inequalities like RAE in those sports compared with right-handedness. Here, in a two-study approach, we tested that hypothesis by examining male and female athletes from various interactive individual sports sampled over a 10-year period from 2007 to 2016. Study 1 investigated distributions of birth and handedness of senior athletes listed in the top 200 of year-end world rankings in table tennis, tennis, squash, and fencing (épée, foil, and saber). Study 2 followed a similar design but focused on junior athletes in the fencing disciplines and tennis. Unlike the above prediction, in both studies, birth distribution was not found to be reliably associated with handedness in any of the sports or disciplines considered. Left-handers were consistently overrepresented in épée, foil, and table tennis, occasionally in saber and tennis, and not at all in squash. Birth frequencies decreased from quartile Q1 (January to March) to Q4 in almost any sporting domain at the junior level, whereas such trend was rarely found at the senior level. In conclusion, while providing novel insight on the role handedness may play at the junior level, our findings do not support the hypothesis that left-handedness helps override birth-related inequalities in high sporting achievement in elite interactive individual sports.
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Affiliation(s)
- Florian Loffing
- Research Group "Sport and Movement Science", Institute of Sport Science, Carl von Ossietzky University of Oldenburg, Oldenburg, Germany
| | - Jörg Schorer
- Research Group "Sport and Movement Science", Institute of Sport Science, Carl von Ossietzky University of Oldenburg, Oldenburg, Germany
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Smith KL, Scarfone S, Chittle L, Horton S, Dixon JC. Confusion Reigns: An Analysis of Responses to U.S. Soccer Age Cut-Off Date Policy Change. Front Sports Act Living 2021; 3:635195. [PMID: 33870186 PMCID: PMC8044793 DOI: 10.3389/fspor.2021.635195] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2020] [Accepted: 02/26/2021] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Relative age effects (RAEs) have been associated with the common practice of grouping athletes by chronological age. Development and selection advantages are often awarded to those who are born closer to, but following, the cut-off date employed by sport systems. In 2015, the U.S. Soccer Federation announced that it would be changing its birth-year registration cut-off date from August 1st to January 1st. This change was introduced to align the U.S. youth soccer calendar with international standards, and simultaneously provide clearer information on player birthdates to “lessen” RAEs. The magnitude of this policy change has led to considerable controversy, with members of the soccer community taking to social media and website blogs, as well as the U.S. Youth Soccer's website, to voice their opinions and general unhappiness with this decision. Thus, the purpose of this study was to provide a summary of online reactions to the policy change, with attention to the manner in which the U.S. Soccer Federation framed (i.e., the underlying rationale for the decision) and publicly communicated its decision to change the annual cut-off date. Qualitative content analysis was used to analyze data collected from 63 social media sites (websites, n = 43; forums, n = 16; blogs, n = 4). From the 3,851 pages of text derived from these sources, a total of 404 unique passages of text were identified within 262 stakeholder posts. Four categories emerged from the data: stakeholder discussion, outcomes identified by stakeholders, recommended courses of action, and communication regarding the policy change. In general, the actions of the U.S. Soccer Federation and related outcomes were negatively perceived by stakeholders at various levels of the sport. Resistance to the change may have been reduced through enhanced communication from the national level and opportunities for stakeholder input. While one objective of this policy change was to combat RAEs, previous research suggests this organizational change will only shift which group of athletes experience relative age (dis)advantages. There appears to be a disconnect between the academic literature and sport policy with respect to solutions for RAEs, which can lead to unintended consequences for various sport stakeholders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kristy L Smith
- Department of Kinesiology, University of Windsor, Windsor, ON, Canada
| | - Sara Scarfone
- Department of Kinesiology, University of Windsor, Windsor, ON, Canada
| | - Laura Chittle
- Department of Kinesiology, University of Windsor, Windsor, ON, Canada
| | - Sean Horton
- Department of Kinesiology, University of Windsor, Windsor, ON, Canada
| | - Jess C Dixon
- Department of Kinesiology, University of Windsor, Windsor, ON, Canada
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Kendler KS, Ohlsson H, Clouston S, Fagan AA, Sundquist J, Sundquist K. The causal effect of resilience on risk for drug abuse: a Swedish national instrumental variable, co-relative and propensity-score analysis. Psychol Med 2021; 51:846-852. [PMID: 31907097 PMCID: PMC7338227 DOI: 10.1017/s0033291719003842] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND We sought to quantify and investigate the causal nature of the association between resilience at age 18 and future drug abuse (DA). METHOD In a national sample of Swedish men (n = 1 392 800), followed for a mean of 30.3 years, resilience was assessed during military conscription and DA defined from medical, criminal and pharmacy registers. For causal inference, we utilized three methods: (i) instrumental variable analyses with the month of birth as the instrument; (ii) co-relative analyses using the general population, cousins, siblings and monozygotic twins; and (iii) propensity scoring on a subsample (n = 48 548) with strong resilience predictors. Cox proportional hazards models were utilized to examine survival time till DA diagnosis. RESULTS Low resilience was most robustly predicted from internalizing symptoms. Lower levels of standardized resilience strongly predicted the risk for DA (HR = 2.31, 95% CIs 2.28-2.33). In instrumental, co-relative, and propensity score analyses, the association between resilience and DA was estimated at HR = 3.06 (2.44-3.85), 1.34 (1.28-1.39), and 1.40 (1.28-1.53), respectively. Sensitivity analyses suggested that our instrument was weak and, despite our large sample, likely under-estimated confounding. CONCLUSIONS Low resilience strongly predicts DA risk. Three different causal analysis methods, with divergent assumptions, concurred in estimating that an appreciable proportion of this association was causal, probably around 40%, with the remainder arising from confounding variables many of which are likely familial. Consistent with prior interventions focused on substance use prevention, our results suggest that prevention programs that increase resilience in adolescence should meaningfully reduce the long-term risk for DA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kenneth S. Kendler
- Virginia Institute for Psychiatric and Behavioral Genetics, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, VA, USA
- Department of Psychiatry, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond VA, USA
| | - Henrik Ohlsson
- Center for Primary Health Care Research, Lund University, Malmö, Sweden
| | - Sean Clouston
- Department of Family, Population, and Preventive Medicine, Program in Public Health, Stony Brook University Health Sciences Center, Stony Brook, NY, USA
| | - Abigail A. Fagan
- Department of Sociology, Criminology & Law, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
| | - Jan Sundquist
- Center for Primary Health Care Research, Lund University, Malmö, Sweden
- Department of Family Medicine and Community Health, Department of Population Health Science and Policy, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, USA
- Department of Functional Pathology, Center for Community-based Healthcare Research and Education (CoHRE), School of Medicine, Shimane University, Japan
| | - Kristina Sundquist
- Center for Primary Health Care Research, Lund University, Malmö, Sweden
- Department of Family Medicine and Community Health, Department of Population Health Science and Policy, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, USA
- Department of Functional Pathology, Center for Community-based Healthcare Research and Education (CoHRE), School of Medicine, Shimane University, Japan
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12
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The relative age effect in German 11- to 18-year-old male and female swimmers. GERMAN JOURNAL OF EXERCISE AND SPORT RESEARCH 2020. [DOI: 10.1007/s12662-020-00677-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
AbstractRelatively older athletes have a greater probability of being selected and subsequently exposed to a higher level of coaching, training and other talent-promoting factors. Grouping by chronological age is, therefore, considered to be one of the weaknesses in talent identification. A large number of studies have confirmed the prevalence of the relative age effect (RAE) across various sports, including swimming. This investigation aims to quantify the prevalence, magnitude and transient pattern of the RAE according to sex and events across German swimmers. The RAE was examined top-100 ranked swimmers (2004–2013) according to birth month, of three cohorts (born 1993–1995; n = 3630) for the age groups 11–18. The Χ2 tests and Cramer’s V estimated effect sizes; odd’s ratios and confidence intervals calculated relative discrepancies between the quartiles. The RAE is significantly present over all events for female swimmers until 13–15 and for males until 16–18 years of age. Effect sizes were moderate until 12/13 years of age for females and 14/15 years of age for males. No inverted effects were visible. Compared to previous reports on Australian as well as Portuguese cohorts, the RAE was prevalent over a longer time period. Therefore, the impact of negative outcomes from RAE appears to be greater among German age group swimmers.
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Smith KL, Weir PL. Female Youth Soccer Participation and Continued Engagement: Associations With Community Size, Community Density, and Relative Age. Front Sports Act Living 2020; 2:552597. [PMID: 33345116 PMCID: PMC7739791 DOI: 10.3389/fspor.2020.552597] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/27/2020] [Accepted: 08/13/2020] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Environmental context can impact youth engagement in sport and athlete development. Previous work has examined the population size of the birthplace of elite athletes; commonly known as the birthplace or community size effect. Community density has also been recognized as an important variable. Exact estimates for the ideal community characteristics and a thorough understanding of the underlying mechanisms has been somewhat elusive. Existing studies are cross-sectional in nature and there is evidence to suggest that significant variation exists within imposed categories. An athlete's birthdate position in a similar-age cohort can also impact development and has been associated with (dis)advantages resulting from subtle age differences (i.e., the relative age effect); it remains unknown if this variable is associated with population density. The objective of this study was to establish longitudinal participation trends among female youth soccer players in Ontario Canada, with consideration of community size, community density, and relative age. Within-category variation and associations between the variables were assessed. Registration entries at age 10 years (n = 9,826) and 16 years (n = 2,305) were isolated for analysis. Odds ratio analyses were conducted within each community size and density category for all 10 year old registrants; 95% confidence intervals were obtained. This procedure was repeated for all registrants at 16 years of age using the expected distribution at age 10 years to examine continued engagement. Findings suggest medium-sized communities (i.e., 10,000-249,999 inhabitants) provide the best odds of participation and continued engagement. Less densely populated communities (i.e., 50-<400 population/km2) appeared to be ideal for facilitating participation at age 10 years, but not for engagement at age 16 years. However, within-category variation was evident when each community was inspected individually. Consistent with previous attempts to find an association between community size and the relative age effect, there did not appear to be an association between community density and birth quartile distribution. Observations from this study show that community size and community density are truly unique and separate variables. Future studies should consider the underlying contributions to both low and high participation and continued engagement, while being mindful of within-category variation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kristy L. Smith
- Motor Behaviour and Lifespan Development, Department of Kinesiology, University of Windsor, Windsor, ON, Canada
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Moulds K, Abbott S, Pion J, Brophy‐Williams C, Heathcote M, Cobley S. Sink or Swim? A survival analysis of sport dropout in Australian youth swimmers. Scand J Med Sci Sports 2020; 30:2222-2233. [DOI: 10.1111/sms.13771] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/26/2020] [Revised: 07/06/2020] [Accepted: 07/09/2020] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Kylie Moulds
- Discipline of Exercise & Sport Science Faculty of Medicine & Health The University of Sydney Sydney NSW Australia
| | - Shaun Abbott
- Discipline of Exercise & Sport Science Faculty of Medicine & Health The University of Sydney Sydney NSW Australia
| | - Johan Pion
- HAN University of Applied Sciences Nijmegen Netherlands
| | | | | | - Stephen Cobley
- Discipline of Exercise & Sport Science Faculty of Medicine & Health The University of Sydney Sydney NSW Australia
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15
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Abbott S, Moulds K, Salter J, Romann M, Edwards L, Cobley S. Testing the application of corrective adjustment procedures for removal of relative age effects in female youth swimming. J Sports Sci 2020; 38:1077-1084. [PMID: 32202222 DOI: 10.1080/02640414.2020.1741956] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
The purpose of this study was (1) accurately estimate longitudinal relationships between decimal age (i.e., chronological and relative) and performance in Australian female 100 m (N = 765) and 200 m (N = 428) Breaststroke swimmers (10-18 years); and (2) determine whether corrective adjustment procedures could remove Relative Age Effects (RAEs) in an independent sample of age-matched 100 m (N = 2,491) and 200 m (N = 1,698) state/national level Breaststroke swimmers. In Part 1, growth curve modelling quantified longitudinal relationships between decimal age and swimming performance. In Part 2, relative age distributions (Quartile 1-4) for "All", "Top 25%" and "10%" of swimming times were examined based on raw and correctively adjusted swim times for age-groups. Based on raw swim times, finding identified RAE effect sizes increased in magnitude (small-medium) with selection level ("All"-"Top 25%") in 12-14 years age-groups for both events. However, when correctively adjusted swim performances were examined, RAEs were primarily absent across all age-groups and selection levels. Using longitudinal reference data, corrective adjustment procedures removed relative age advantages in female youth Breaststroke performance. Removing the influence of relative age-related differences is predicted to improve the accuracy of identifying genuinely skilled youth swimmers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shaun Abbott
- Discipline of Exercise & Sport Science, Faculty of Health Sciences, The University of Sydney , Sydney, Australia
| | - Kylie Moulds
- Discipline of Exercise & Sport Science, Faculty of Health Sciences, The University of Sydney , Sydney, Australia
| | | | - Michael Romann
- Swiss Federal Institute of Sport , Magglingen, Switzerland
| | - Lucy Edwards
- Discipline of Exercise & Sport Science, Faculty of Health Sciences, The University of Sydney , Sydney, Australia
| | - Stephen Cobley
- Discipline of Exercise & Sport Science, Faculty of Health Sciences, The University of Sydney , Sydney, Australia
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16
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Li Z, Mao L, Steingröver C, Wattie N, Baker J, Schorer J, Helsen WF. Relative age effects in Elite Chinese soccer players: Implications of the 'one-child' policy. PLoS One 2020; 15:e0228611. [PMID: 32059000 PMCID: PMC7021294 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0228611] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/08/2019] [Accepted: 01/17/2020] [Indexed: 12/01/2022] Open
Abstract
The relative age effect (RAE) refers to the asymmetrical distribution of birthdates in a cohort found in many achievement domains, particularly in sports with many participants like soccer. Given the uniqueness of the one-child policy in China, this study examined the existence of the RAE in elite Chinese male and female soccer players generally and relative to their playing position on the field. Results showed a clear and obvious RAE for all age groups (U20 male, U18 male, adult female and U18 female) with the observed birthdate distributions for each age group significantly different from expected distributions (p<0.05). Additionally, we noticed a differential RAE according to the players’ position on the field as reflected in different effect sizes. In male players, the RAE was significantly greater in Defenders (DF) and Goalkeepers (GK) compared to Midfielders (MF) and Forwards (FW) (VDF = 0.266>VGK = 0.215>VMF = 0.178>VFW = 0.175). In female players, GKs had a larger RAE (VGK = 0.184>0.17, VDF = 0.143, VMF = 0.127, VFW = 0.116). To reduce the negative consequences associated with RAEs throughout player development systems, potential solutions are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhen Li
- Department of Physical Education and Sports Training, Shanghai University of Sport, Shanghai, China
| | - Lijuan Mao
- Department of Physical Education and Sports Training, Shanghai University of Sport, Shanghai, China
- * E-mail: (WFH); (LM)
| | - Christina Steingröver
- Department of Sport and Motion, Institute of Sport Science, University of Oldenburg, Oldenburg, Germany
| | - Nick Wattie
- Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Ontario Institute of Technology, Oshawa, ON, Canada
| | - Joseph Baker
- School of Kinesiology and Health Science, York University, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - Jörg Schorer
- Department of Sport and Motion, Institute of Sport Science, University of Oldenburg, Oldenburg, Germany
| | - Werner F. Helsen
- Research Centre for Movement Control and Neuroplasticity, Department of Movement Sciences, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
- * E-mail: (WFH); (LM)
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17
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Fonseca FS, Figueiredo LS, Gantois P, de Lima-Junior D, Fortes LS. Relative Age Effect is Modulated by Playing Position but is Not Related to Competitive Success in Elite Under-19 Handball Athletes. Sports (Basel) 2019; 7:sports7040091. [PMID: 31010139 PMCID: PMC6524358 DOI: 10.3390/sports7040091] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/06/2019] [Revised: 04/02/2019] [Accepted: 04/17/2019] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
This study aimed to verify the occurrence of the relative age effect (RAE) in male elite young handball athletes according to the playing position and its association with team performance in a World Championship. Data from 383 handball athletes from 24 countries who participated in the 7th World Men’s Championship in the under-19 category were analyzed. RAE was investigated from the birth trimester of the athletes, their playing position, and final ranking in the Championship. The results showed an overrepresentation of athletes born in the first two trimesters (Q1 and Q2) (χ2(3) = 32.97; p < 0.001, ω = 0.29). The analysis of the athlete’s position showed that most wings (χ2(3) = 18.37; p < 0.001, ω = 0.32) and backs (χ2(3) = 12.51; p = 0.006, ω = 0.34) were born in the first trimesters (Q1 and Q2). The ranking in the Championship presented no significant association with the date of the birth (p > 0.05). The results showed the existence of the RAE in youth handball elite athletes, especially for the back and wing positions. However, the strategy of selecting is questionable once the presence of RAE was not associated with competitive success.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fabiano S Fonseca
- Department of Physical Education, Universidade Federal Rural de Pernambuco (UFRPE), Recife 52171-900, Brazil.
| | - Lucas S Figueiredo
- Department of Physical Education, Faculdade de Ensino de Minas Gerais (FACEMG), Belo Horizonte 31515-000, Brazil.
| | - Petrus Gantois
- Associated Graduate Program in Physical Education, Universidade Federal da Paraíba (UFPB), João Pessoa 58051-900, Brazil.
| | - Dalton de Lima-Junior
- Graduate Program in Physical Education, Universidade Federal de Pernambuco (UFPE), Recife 50670-901, Brazil.
| | - Leonardo S Fortes
- Department of Physical Education, Universidade Federal da Paraíba (UFPB), João Pessoa 58051-900, Brazil.
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18
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Removing relative age effects from youth swimming: The development and testing of corrective adjustment procedures. J Sci Med Sport 2019; 22:735-740. [PMID: 30665755 DOI: 10.1016/j.jsams.2018.12.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/19/2018] [Revised: 12/18/2018] [Accepted: 12/19/2018] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES (1) Generate accurate estimates of the relationship between decimal age (i.e., chronological and relative) with swimming performance based on longitudinal data. (2) Determine whether corrective adjustment procedures can remove Relative Age Effects (RAEs) from junior/youth swimming. DESIGN Longitudinal and repeated years of cross-sectional performance data were examined. METHODS (1) Participants were 553 male 100m Freestyle swimmers (10-18 years) who participated in ≥five annual events between 1999-2017. Growth curve modelling quantified the relationship between age and swimming performance, permitting corrective adjustment calculations. (2) Participants were N=2141 male 100m Freestyle swimmers (13-16 years) who swam at state/national events in 2015-2017. Relative age distributions for 'All', 'Top 50%', '25%' and '10%' of swimming times were examined based on raw and correctively adjusted swim times. Chi-square, Cramer's V and Odds Ratios (OR) determined whether relative age (quartile) inequalities existed according to age-groups, selection level and correctively adjusted swim times. RESULTS Based on raw swim times, for 'All' swimmers RAEs was evident at 13 and 14 years-old and dissipated thereafter. But, RAE effect sizes substantially increased with selection level, with large-medium effects between 13-15 years-old (e.g., 15 years - Top 50% Q1v Q4 OR=2.28; Top 10%=6.02). However, when correctively adjusted swim times were examined, RAEs were predominantly absent across age-group and selection levels. CONCLUSIONS With accurate longitudinal reference data, corrective adjustment procedures effectively removed RAEs from 100m Freestyle swimming performance, suggesting the potential to improve swimming participation experience and performance evaluation.
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19
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Tribolet R, Watsford ML, Coutts AJ, Smith C, Fransen J. From entry to elite: The relative age effect in the Australian football talent pathway. J Sci Med Sport 2018; 22:741-745. [PMID: 30598253 DOI: 10.1016/j.jsams.2018.12.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/13/2018] [Revised: 10/27/2018] [Accepted: 12/19/2018] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES This study aimed to assess the first instance and prevalence of the Relative Age Effect (RAE) in the male Australian Football (AF) talent development pathway through to the Australian Football League (AFL). DESIGN Retrospective cross-sectional analysis. METHODS Birthdate distribution was accessed from an U10-U12 AF academy trial (n=514), U13-U19 AF academy players (n=408), AFL state, national and international combines (n=2989), AFL Rising Star nominees (n=50) and the top ten AFL Brownlow vote recipients (n=50) between 2013-2017. RESULTS Chi-squared analysis showed significant overrepresentation to early born players in the selection year for both quartile and half-year compared to the previously known distribution at different stages of the talent pathway. Odds ratio demonstrated bias to players born in quartiles one and two of the selection year compared to players born in quartile four in every cohort examined. CONCLUSIONS RAEs appear between ages 10-12 in the male AF development pathway and continue to senior professional competition. RAEs are amplified as the competition for positions increases and at points where selection cut-offs occur. Interestingly, players receiving votes for the AFL's best and fairest award were 12.6 times more likely to be born in the first half of the year. This may suggest a latent effect, which has long term benefits for relatively older players. Nonetheless, the RAE affects career progression in a male AF talent pathway.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rhys Tribolet
- Human Performance Research Centre, Sport and Exercise Science, Faculty of Health, University of Technology Sydney, Australia; Sydney Swans Academy, Australia.
| | - Mark L Watsford
- Human Performance Research Centre, Sport and Exercise Science, Faculty of Health, University of Technology Sydney, Australia
| | - Aaron J Coutts
- Human Performance Research Centre, Sport and Exercise Science, Faculty of Health, University of Technology Sydney, Australia
| | | | - Job Fransen
- Human Performance Research Centre, Sport and Exercise Science, Faculty of Health, University of Technology Sydney, Australia; Sydney Swans Academy, Australia
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20
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Penna EM, Campos BT, Gonçalves GGP, Godinho GHP, Lima COV, Prado LS. Relative age effect and dropout causes in a multisport club setting. Is there a special reason to give up? MOTRIZ: REVISTA DE EDUCACAO FISICA 2018. [DOI: 10.1590/s1980-6574201800040011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
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21
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Smith KL, Weir PL, Till K, Romann M, Cobley S. Relative Age Effects Across and Within Female Sport Contexts: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Sports Med 2018. [PMID: 29536262 DOI: 10.1007/s40279-018-0890-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 86] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Subtle differences in chronological age within sport (bi-) annual-age groupings can contribute to immediate participation and long-term attainment discrepancies; known as the relative age effect. Voluminous studies have examined relative age effects in male sport; however, their prevalence and context-specific magnitude in female sport remain undetermined. OBJECTIVE The objective of this study was to determine the prevalence and magnitude of relative age effects in female sport via examination of published data spanning 1984-2016. METHODS Registered with PROSPERO (No. 42016053497) and using Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-analysis systematic search guidelines, 57 studies were identified, containing 308 independent samples across 25 sports. Distribution data were synthesised using odds ratio meta-analyses, applying an invariance random-effects model. Follow-up subgroup category analyses examined whether relative age effect magnitudes were moderated by age group, competition level, sport type, sport context and study quality. RESULTS When comparing the relatively oldest (quartile 1) vs. youngest (quartile 4) individuals across all female sport contexts, the overall pooled estimate identified a significant but small relative age effect (odds ratio = 1.25; 95% confidence interval 1.21-1.30; p = 0.01; odds ratio adjusted = 1.21). Subgroup analyses revealed the relative age effect magnitude was higher in pre-adolescent (≤ 11 years) and adolescent (12-14 years) age groups and at higher competition levels. Relative age effect magnitudes were higher in team-based and individual sport contexts associated with high physiological demands. CONCLUSION The findings highlight relative age effects are prevalent across the female sport contexts examined. Relative age effect magnitude is moderated by interactions between developmental stages, competition level and sport context demands. Modifications to sport policy, organisational and athlete development system structure, as well as practitioner intervention are recommended to prevent relative age effect-related participation and longer term attainment inequalities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kristy L Smith
- Faculty of Human Kinetics, University of Windsor, Windsor, ON, Canada
| | - Patricia L Weir
- Faculty of Human Kinetics, University of Windsor, Windsor, ON, Canada
| | - Kevin Till
- Institute for Sport, Physical Activity and Leisure, Leeds Beckett University, Leeds, UK
| | - Michael Romann
- Swiss Federal Institute of Sport Magglingen, Magglingen, Switzerland
| | - Stephen Cobley
- Exercise and Sport Sciences, Faculty of Health Sciences, The University of Sydney, Cumberland Campus, 75 East St, Lidcombe, Sydney, NSW, 2141, Australia.
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22
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Abstract
The relationship between the date of birth and expertise in various sports among both elite and youth level athletes is well established, and known as the relative age effect (RAE). However, new results in for example Canadian Hockey and British cricket and rugby have indicated a reversal of RAE among selected talents where the youngest athletes are more likely to remain selected than their older peers. As such, RAE may therefore depend on the age and the level of competition. The purpose of this study was therefore to analyse RAE from the youth to senior national level in a sample of successful Danish male national teams. The sample included 244 players from Danish under-19, under-21 and senior national levels. These players have been part of successful teams, winning 18 medals at 24 youth European and World championships and 8 medals during 12 years at the senior level. The results showed a significant RAE on both youth and national levels. However, RAE was less marked from the under-19 to under-21 and further to the senior national level. Results show that at the national youth level talent selection favours the relatively older players, of whom a larger proportion fails to be re-selected to the senior level compared to their younger peers. RAE appears to play a central and reversing role in the identification and re-selection in Danish male handball. The results also show that the presence of both a constant and constituent year structure affects RAE, even when introduced at late adolescence.
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23
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Kearney PE, Hayes PR, Nevill A. Faster, higher, stronger, older: Relative age effects are most influential during the youngest age grade of track and field athletics in the United Kingdom. J Sports Sci 2018. [PMID: 29513142 DOI: 10.1080/02640414.2018.1449093] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/17/2022]
Abstract
The relative age effect (RAE) is a common phenomenon in youth sport, whereby children born early in the selection year are more likely to experience success and to sustain participation. There is a lack of research investigating variables which influence RAEs within track and field athletics. Such information is vital to guide policies in relation to competition structure, youth development squads and coach education. A database of competition results was analysed to determine the extent to which RAEs were present in track and field athletics in the United Kingdom. Subsequent analyses examined whether age, sex, event and skill level influenced the RAE. Examination of 77,571 records revealed that RAEs were widespread, but most pronounced during Under 13 (U13) competitions; that is, during athletes' first exposure to formal track and field competition. Sex, event and skill level further influenced the existence and magnitude of RAEs at different age grades. Relative age is a key influencing factor within track and field athletics, especially at the youngest age category. Consequently, national governing bodies need to consider what administrative and stakeholder initiatives are necessary to minimise the effects of RAEs on young athletes' early experiences of competition.
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Affiliation(s)
- Philip E Kearney
- a Physical Education & Sport Sciences Department , University of Limerick , Limerick , Ireland
| | - Philip R Hayes
- b Department of Sport, Exercise and Rehabilitation , Northumbria University , Newcastle upon Tyne , UK
| | - Alan Nevill
- c Institute of Sport & Human Sciences , University of Wolverhampton , Wolverhampton , UK
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24
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Avery M, Wattie N, Holmes M, Dogra S. Seasonal Changes in Functional Fitness and Neurocognitive Assessments in Youth Ice-Hockey Players. J Strength Cond Res 2017; 32:3143-3152. [PMID: 29239998 DOI: 10.1519/jsc.0000000000002399] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Avery, M, Wattie, N, Holmes, M, and Dogra, S. Seasonal changes in functional fitness and neurocognitive assessments in youth ice-hockey players. J Strength Cond Res 32(11): 3143-3152, 2018-Deficits in balance and strength combined with differing rates of sensory and motor neural development may increase risk of sports-related injury in youth. This study evaluated changes in functional fitness and concussion status over the course of a competitive season in youth ice-hockey players, and examined the relationship between these variables and injury occurrence. Thirty-six participants (8.9 ± 1.1 years) completed preseason and postseason assessments including anthropometric measurements, the functional movement screen (FMS), Lower Quarter Y-Balance Test (YBT-LQ), and a computerized neurocognitive assessment (ImPACT). Paired-samples t-tests were used to compare preseason and postseason data. Independent samples t-tests were used to compare FMS, YBT-LQ, and ImPACT scores between injured and uninjured participants at baseline. The mean composite score of the FMS was not statistically different between preseason (15.1 ± 1.8) and postseason (15.6 ± 2.3, p < 0.16). The YBT-LQ composite score showed a decrease in reach distance scores between preseason (86.10 ± 6.00) and postseason (83.20 ± 5.40, p < 0.001). Neurocognitive assessment scores improved in both the injured and uninjured participants. There were no significant relationships between FMS scores, YBT-LQ, and injury incidence. Results from our study provide insight into changes in functional fitness levels and neurocognitive scores over the course of a season in youth ice-hockey players. These findings provide insight into expected changes over the course of a season and provide context for injury risk monitoring by coaches.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michelle Avery
- Health and Human Performance Laboratory, Faculty of Health Sciences (Kinesiology), University of Ontario Institute of Technology, Oshawa, Ontario, Canada
| | - Nick Wattie
- Health and Human Performance Laboratory, Faculty of Health Sciences (Kinesiology), University of Ontario Institute of Technology, Oshawa, Ontario, Canada
| | - Michael Holmes
- Faculty of Applied Health Sciences, Brock University, St. Catharines, Ontario, Canada
| | - Shilpa Dogra
- Health and Human Performance Laboratory, Faculty of Health Sciences (Kinesiology), University of Ontario Institute of Technology, Oshawa, Ontario, Canada
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25
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Relative age effects despite weight categories in elite junior male wrestlers. SPORT SCIENCES FOR HEALTH 2017. [DOI: 10.1007/s11332-017-0351-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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26
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Mann DL, van Ginneken PJMA. Age-ordered shirt numbering reduces the selection bias associated with the relative age effect. J Sports Sci 2016; 35:784-790. [PMID: 27238077 DOI: 10.1080/02640414.2016.1189588] [Citation(s) in RCA: 68] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
When placed into age groups for junior sporting competition, the relative differences in age between children leads to a bias in who is evaluated as being talented. While the impact of this relative age effect (RAE) is clear, until now there has been no evidence to show how to reduce it. The aim of this study was to determine whether the selection bias associated with the RAE could be reduced. Talent scouts from an elite football club watched junior games and ranked players on the basis of their potential. Scouts were allocated to one of three groups provided with contrasting information about the age of the players: (1) no age information, (2) players' birthdates or (3) knowledge that the numbers on the playing shirts corresponded to the relative age of the players. Results revealed a significant selection bias for the scouts in the no-age information group, and that bias remained when scouts knew the players' dates-of-birth. Strikingly though, the selection bias was eliminated when scouts watched the games knowing the shirt numbers corresponded to the relative ages of the players. The selection bias associated with the RAE can be reduced if information about age is presented appropriately.
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Affiliation(s)
- David L Mann
- a MOVE Research Institute Amsterdam, Department of Human Movement Sciences, Faculty of Behavioural and Movement Sciences , Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam , Amsterdam , The Netherlands
| | - Pleun J M A van Ginneken
- a MOVE Research Institute Amsterdam, Department of Human Movement Sciences, Faculty of Behavioural and Movement Sciences , Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam , Amsterdam , The Netherlands
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27
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Deprez DN, Fransen J, Lenoir M, Philippaerts RM, Vaeyens R. A retrospective study on anthropometrical, physical fitness, and motor coordination characteristics that influence dropout, contract status, and first-team playing time in high-level soccer players aged eight to eighteen years. J Strength Cond Res 2016; 29:1692-704. [PMID: 26010800 DOI: 10.1519/jsc.0000000000000806] [Citation(s) in RCA: 87] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
The goal of this article was twofold, and a 2-study approach was conducted. The first study aimed to expose the anthropometrical, physical performance, and motor coordination characteristics that influence dropout from a high-level soccer training program in players aged 8-16 years. The mixed-longitudinal sample included 388 Belgian youth soccer players who were assigned to either a "club group" or a "dropout group." In the second study, cross-sectional data of anthropometry, physical performance, and motor coordination were retrospectively explored to investigate which characteristics influence future contract status (contract vs. no contract group) and first-team playing time for 72 high-level youth soccer players (mean age = 16.2 years). Generally, club players outperformed their dropout peers for motor coordination, soccer-specific aerobic endurance, and speed. Anthropometry and estimated maturity status did not discriminate between club and dropout players. Contract players jumped further (p = 0.011) and had faster times for a 5-m sprint (p = 0.041) than no contract players. The following prediction equation explains 16.7% of the variance in future playing minutes in adolescent youth male soccer players: -2,869.3 + 14.6 × standing broad jump. Practitioners should include the evaluation of motor coordination, aerobic endurance, and speed performances to distinguish high-level soccer players further succeeding a talent development program and future dropout players, between 8 and 16 years. From the age of 16 years, measures of explosivity are supportive when selecting players into a future professional soccer career.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dieter N Deprez
- Department of Movement and Sports Sciences, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
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28
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Wattie N, Schorer J, Baker J. The relative age effect in sport: a developmental systems model. Sports Med 2015; 45:83-94. [PMID: 25169442 DOI: 10.1007/s40279-014-0248-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 121] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
The policies that dictate the participation structure of many youth sport systems involve the use of a set selection date (e.g. 31 December), which invariably produces relative age differences between those within the selection year (e.g. 1 January to 31 December). Those born early in the selection year (e.g. January) are relatively older—by as much as 12 months minus 1 day—than those born later in the selection year (e.g. December). Research in the area of sport has identified a number of significant developmental effects associated with such relative age differences. However, a theoretical framework that describes the breadth and complexity of relative age effects (RAEs) in sport does not exist in the literature. This paper reviews and summarizes the existing literature on relative age in sport, and proposes a constraints-based developmental systems model for RAEs in sport.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nick Wattie
- Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Ontario Institute of Technology, 2000 Simcoe Street North, Oshawa, ON, L1H 7K4, Canada,
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29
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Halldner L, Tillander A, Lundholm C, Boman M, Långström N, Larsson H, Lichtenstein P. Relative immaturity and ADHD: findings from nationwide registers, parent- and self-reports. J Child Psychol Psychiatry 2014; 55:897-904. [PMID: 24673585 DOI: 10.1111/jcpp.12229] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 01/21/2014] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND We addressed if immaturity relative to peers reflected in birth month increases the likelihood of ADHD diagnosis and treatment. METHODS We linked nationwide Patient and Prescribed Drug Registers and used prospective cohort and nested case-control designs to study 6-69 year-old individuals in Sweden from July 2005 to December 2009 (Cohort 1). Cohort 1 included 56,263 individuals diagnosed with ADHD or ever used prescribed ADHD-specific medication. Complementary population-representative cohorts provided DSM-IV ADHD symptom ratings; parent-reported for 10,760 9-year-old twins born 1995-2000 from the CATSS study (Cohort 2) and self-reported for 6,970 adult twins age 20-47 years born 1959-1970 from the STAGE study (Cohort 3). We calculated odds ratios (OR:s) for ADHD across age for individuals born in November/December compared to January/February (Cohort 1). ADHD symptoms in Cohorts 2 and 3 were studied as a function of calendar birth month. RESULTS ADHD diagnoses and medication treatment were both significantly more common in individuals born in November/December versus January/February; peaking at ages 6 (OR: 1.8; 95% CI: 1.5-2.2) and 7 years (OR: 1.6; 95% CI: 1.3-1.8) in the Patient and Prescribed Drug Registers, respectively. We found no corresponding differences in parent- or self-reported ADHD symptoms by calendar birth month. CONCLUSION Relative immaturity compared to class mates might contribute to ADHD diagnosis and pharmacotherapy despite absence of parallel findings in reported ADHD symptom loads by relative immaturity. Increased clinical awareness of this phenomenon may be warranted to decrease risk for imprecise diagnostics and treatment. We speculate that flexibility regarding age at school start according to individual maturity could reduce developmentally inappropriate demands on children and improve the precision of ADHD diagnostic practice and pharmacological treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Linda Halldner
- Department of Medical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden; Karolinska Institutet Center of Neurodevelopmental Disorders (KIND), Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
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