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Naghinezhad J, Hosseini E, Siavashpour Z, Houshyari M, Khajetash B, Ghasemzadeh M. Designing a linear accelerator-based "X irradiation system" for platelet products: an efficient, safe, accessible and cost-effective alternative for conventional X- or gamma irradiators. Sci Rep 2024; 14:28363. [PMID: 39550453 PMCID: PMC11569130 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-024-80118-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/29/2024] [Accepted: 11/14/2024] [Indexed: 11/18/2024] Open
Abstract
X-irradiation of blood products is an alternative for gamma-ray to prevent post-transfusion GvHD. However, commercial X-irradiators are not widely available while little is known about their safety and efficacy for platelet products. This study introduces an efficient, accessible and cost-effective "X irradiation system" for platelet concentrates (PCs). By constructing a suitable radiation box (phantom) for a clinically available linear accelerator, an "X irradiation system" was designed specifically for PCs. PCs were divided into three equal bags either exposed to X- and gamma-irradiation or kept unirradiated (control). Irradiation-induced inhibition of T cells proliferation was examined by MTT and cell cycle assays on mononuclear cells (MNCs) obtained from PCs. The inhibitory effect of irradiation on allorecognition ability of MNCs was assessed by mixed lymphocyte reaction where MTT evaluated lymphocyte proliferation responses and flowcytometry examined CD8+T lymphocytes activity. Platelet activation was also examined with P-selectin expression and PAC-1 binding by flowcytometry. X- and gamma-irradiation reduced T cell proliferation while disturbing the cell-cycle with reduced entry of T-cells into the S phase and their G2 arrest. Both types of irradiations also effectively reduced "lymphocyte allorecognition responses" while inactivating CD8+T lymphocytes in platelet products but with no significant effect on platelet activity. This is the first study that showed "X irradiation system" effectively suppresses T cell proliferation and CD8+T lymphocyte activity in platelet products, with no effect to platelet quality and activation markers. This may suggest the LINAC-based "X irradiation system" with a dose of 30Gy as efficient and safe as gamma-irradiation for platelet products.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jalal Naghinezhad
- Blood Transfusion Research Center, High Institute for Research and Education in Transfusion Medicine, Iranian Blood Transfusion Organization Building, Next to the Milad Tower, Hemmat Exp. Way, P.O.Box:14665-1157, Tehran, Iran
| | - Ehteramolsadat Hosseini
- Blood Transfusion Research Center, High Institute for Research and Education in Transfusion Medicine, Iranian Blood Transfusion Organization Building, Next to the Milad Tower, Hemmat Exp. Way, P.O.Box:14665-1157, Tehran, Iran.
| | - Zahra Siavashpour
- Radiology oncology Department, Medical School, Shohada-e Tajrish Educational Hospital, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Mohammad Houshyari
- Radiology oncology Department, Medical School, Shohada-e Tajrish Educational Hospital, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Benyamin Khajetash
- Department of Medical Physics, School of Medicine, Iran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Mehran Ghasemzadeh
- Blood Transfusion Research Center, High Institute for Research and Education in Transfusion Medicine, Iranian Blood Transfusion Organization Building, Next to the Milad Tower, Hemmat Exp. Way, P.O.Box:14665-1157, Tehran, Iran.
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2
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Cain L, Geneen LJ, Wiltshire M, Kimber C, Proffitt S, Sandercock J, Dorée C, Brunskill SJ, Estcourt LJ. Universal irradiation of platelets: Does irradiation affect the quality, effectiveness, and safety of platelets for transfusion? Transfus Med Rev 2024; 38:150840. [PMID: 39019680 DOI: 10.1016/j.tmrv.2024.150840] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/25/2024] [Revised: 06/14/2024] [Accepted: 06/14/2024] [Indexed: 07/19/2024]
Abstract
We aimed to identify any detrimental effects on platelet quality and clinical effectiveness, of irradiated platelets compared to non-irradiated platelets for transfusion. The review was conducted in accordance with PRISMA guidelines. The protocol was prospectively registered on PROSPERO [CRD42023441930]. Our search identified 3002 references, of which we included 44 studies. Forty-one were in vitro only studies, two studies were in healthy volunteers, and one study reported clinical outcomes in thrombocytopenic patients. X-ray was used exclusively in three studies, and alongside gamma irradiation in one study. Two studies did not report the source of irradiation. The remaining 38 studies used gamma irradiation only. We assessed risk of bias (ROB) for studies reporting clinical and in vivo outcomes using ROB 2.0 (3 studies). We adapted a ROB tool designed for animal studies to assess ROB for the studies reporting in vitro outcomes (43 studies). We assessed the certainty of the evidence for the eight outcomes deemed most important to assess platelet quality and clinical effectiveness (where day 0 is the day of the blood draw). Overall, gamma irradiation has little to no effect on most markers of platelet quality and effectiveness. Where there is evidence of detriment from irradiation, differences are small in vitro, and are unlikely to affect clinical outcomes following transfusion. However, the evidence base is limited. Only half the studies could be included in any analysis. There is very limited evidence for x-ray as a source of irradiation and, given the potential benefits of using x-ray over gamma irradiation (ease of use and safety requirements), we would welcome further research comparing x-ray to gamma, and x-ray to a non-irradiated control.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lorna Cain
- Haematology/Transfusion Medicine, NHS Blood and Transplant, Oxford, UK; Nuffield Department of Clinical Laboratory Sciences, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK.
| | - Louise J Geneen
- Nuffield Department of Clinical Laboratory Sciences, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK; Systematic Review Initiative, NHS Blood and Transplant, Oxford, UK
| | - Michael Wiltshire
- Component Development Laboratory, NHS Blood and Transplant, Cambridge, UK
| | - Catherine Kimber
- Nuffield Department of Clinical Laboratory Sciences, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK; Systematic Review Initiative, NHS Blood and Transplant, Oxford, UK
| | - Sue Proffitt
- Component Development Laboratory, NHS Blood and Transplant, Cambridge, UK
| | - Josie Sandercock
- Nuffield Department of Clinical Laboratory Sciences, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK; Systematic Review Initiative, NHS Blood and Transplant, Oxford, UK
| | - Carolyn Dorée
- Nuffield Department of Clinical Laboratory Sciences, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK; Systematic Review Initiative, NHS Blood and Transplant, Oxford, UK
| | - Susan J Brunskill
- Nuffield Department of Clinical Laboratory Sciences, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK; Systematic Review Initiative, NHS Blood and Transplant, Oxford, UK
| | - Lise J Estcourt
- Haematology/Transfusion Medicine, NHS Blood and Transplant, Oxford, UK; Systematic Review Initiative, NHS Blood and Transplant, Oxford, UK
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3
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Valsami S, Dryllis G, Papanastasi K, Kokoris S, Kriebardis A, Nikitiadis K, Konstantopoulos K, Politou M. Transfusion-associated graft-versus-host disease (TA-GVHD) and graft-versus-host disease (GVHD): Pathophysiology and management (contrasted and compared). Hematol Oncol Stem Cell Ther 2024; 17:203-210. [PMID: 39829094 DOI: 10.4103/hemoncstem.hemoncstem-d-24-00043] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/06/2024] [Accepted: 12/14/2024] [Indexed: 01/22/2025] Open
Abstract
Transfusion of blood products is a common lifesaving medical procedure in clinical practice. However, it poses the risk of potential adverse reactions for the recipient. Transfusion-associated graft-versus-host-disease (TA-GVHD) is a rare adverse event, fatal in >90% of cases. TA-GVHD pathophysiology is not completely understood involving two factors: (i) underlying immunosuppression and (ii) human leukocyte antigen compatibility between blood donor and recipient. Clinical presentation is not specific, and the difficulty in correlating the clinical syndrome to the transfusion renders diagnosis challenging. As no effective treatment exists to date, irradiation of blood products remains the cornerstone of TA-GVHD prevention. Distinct differences emerge in comparing TA-GVHD to GVHD, a common event of the bone marrow graft to the recipient after allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplantation; thus, GVHD may be a helpful disease model used to better understand TA-GVHD. This is a review of TA-GVHD in comparison with GVHD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Serena Valsami
- Hematology Laboratory-Blood Bank, Aretaieion Hospital, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Athens, Greece
| | - Georgios Dryllis
- Laboratory of Reliability and Quality Control in Laboratory Haematology (HemoQcR), Department of Biomedical Sciences, School of Health & Welfare Sciences, University of West Attica (UniWA), Egaleo City, Greece
- Department of Clinical Hematology, "Mitera" Hospital of Athens, Marousi 15123, Greece
| | - Kassiani Papanastasi
- Hematology Laboratory-Blood Bank, Aretaieion Hospital, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Athens, Greece
| | - Styliani Kokoris
- Laboratory of Haematology and Blood Bank Unit, "Attiko" Hospital, School of Medicine, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, 12462 Athens, Greece
| | - Anastasios Kriebardis
- Laboratory of Reliability and Quality Control in Laboratory Haematology (HemoQcR), Department of Biomedical Sciences, School of Health & Welfare Sciences, University of West Attica (UniWA), Egaleo City, Greece
| | - Konstantinos Nikitiadis
- Hematology Laboratory-Blood Bank, Aretaieion Hospital, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Athens, Greece
| | | | - Marianna Politou
- Hematology Laboratory-Blood Bank, Aretaieion Hospital, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Athens, Greece
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4
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Peng D, Bai W, Zhang C, Chang X, Ma P, Wang X, Sun S, Zhan L. X-ray irradiation effectively inactivated lymphocytes in transfusion in vivo monitored by the bioluminescence transfusion-associated graft-versus-host disease model. Vox Sang 2024; 119:181-192. [PMID: 38226529 DOI: 10.1111/vox.13559] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/23/2023] [Revised: 09/15/2023] [Accepted: 10/05/2023] [Indexed: 01/17/2024]
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES Transfusion of cold-stored whole blood is the preferred resuscitation method for trauma patients but may cause transfusion-associated graft-versus-host disease (TA-GVHD). Standard clinical practice to prevent this is to irradiate blood components with gamma-rays. X-ray irradiations are also a safe and effective alternative to gamma-ray irradiation. We established a visual mouse model of TA-GVHD to compare the viability and function of lymphocytes exposed to gamma- and x-ray irradiation. MATERIALS AND METHODS A haploidentical transplantation mouse model was established to simulate TA-GVHD with Balb/c mice as donors and hybrid F1 CB6 mice (Balb/c × C57) as recipients. Spleen cells from Tg-Fluc+ Balb/c mice were isolated and irradiated with gamma-rays and x-rays. Lymphocyte activation, apoptosis and proliferation post phorbol 1 2-myristate 1 3-acetate (PMA) stimulation were evaluated. After transfusion, we monitored Fluc+ lymphocytes daily by bioluminescence imaging. Recipients were euthanized on day 21, and tissues were examined pathologically and for inflammatory cytokines. RESULTS The viability of gamma- or x-ray irradiated lymphocytes decreased significantly with slight changes in proliferation in vivo after transfusion. Compared with the non-irradiated group, both the gamma- and x-ray irradiated groups showed significantly decreased clinical scoring and inflammatory cytokine levels. The fluorescence intensity of the body and target organs was reduced after irradiation. CONCLUSION No recipients acquired TA-GVHD after lymphocyte transfusion subjected to gamma- or x-rays, showing that x-rays inactivate as well as gamma rays and are suitable for irradiating whole blood.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dongxin Peng
- Institute of Health Service and Transfusion Medicine, Beijing, People's Republic of China
| | - Wenyuan Bai
- Institute of Health Service and Transfusion Medicine, Beijing, People's Republic of China
| | - Can Zhang
- Institute of Health Service and Transfusion Medicine, Beijing, People's Republic of China
- School of Biomedical Engineering, Anhui Medical University, Hefei, People's Republic of China
| | - Xindai Chang
- Institute of Health Service and Transfusion Medicine, Beijing, People's Republic of China
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, Yanshan University, Qinhuangdao, People's Republic of China
| | - Ping Ma
- Institute of Health Service and Transfusion Medicine, Beijing, People's Republic of China
| | - Xiaohui Wang
- Institute of Health Service and Transfusion Medicine, Beijing, People's Republic of China
| | - Sujing Sun
- Institute of Health Service and Transfusion Medicine, Beijing, People's Republic of China
| | - Linsheng Zhan
- Institute of Health Service and Transfusion Medicine, Beijing, People's Republic of China
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Elmakki EE, Madkhali MA, Oraibi O, Alqassimi S, Saleh E. Transfusion-Associated Graft-Versus-Host Disease in Adults. Cureus 2023; 15:e44148. [PMID: 37753040 PMCID: PMC10518734 DOI: 10.7759/cureus.44148] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 08/25/2023] [Indexed: 09/28/2023] Open
Abstract
Transfusion-associated graft-versus-host disease (TA-GVHD) is a rare but fatal complication of blood transfusion that usually develops two to 30 days following a blood transfusion giving rise to graft versus host disease (GVHD) clinical features that are consisting of fever, skin rash, jaundice, diarrhea, and pancytopenia. The disease is fulminant in most patients with a mortality rate of >90% of cases. The main aim of this review is to enhance awareness among medical practitioners about this fatal disease. Data were extracted manually from the main medical databases (Medline, Scopus, and Google Scholar) after the revision of selected articles and assessed for their contribution to the knowledge of TA-GVHD. TA-GVHD occurs when the viable donor T-cells in the blood or blood products attack the recipient's tissues which his/her immune system is incapable to destroy due to several reasons. The recipient's tissues that are usually involved in TA-GVHD include the liver, intestine, skin, lungs, and bone marrow. Any blood component either whole blood, packed red blood cells (RBCs), platelets, or fresh non-frozen plasma that contains viable T lymphocytes can cause TA-GVHD. Host immunodeficiency, transfusion of fresh blood, and partial human leukocyte antigen (HLA) matching between the donors and the recipients represent the major risk factors of TA-GVHD. Partial HLA matching includes immunocompetent recipients who receive blood from a first-degree relative also, seen in genetically homogenous populations because of high rates of consanguineous marriage. The diagnosis of TA-GVHD is mainly suspected based on clinical manifestations. However, a histopathological study of either skin or rectal biopsy is diagnostic. The treatment of TA-GVHD is generally not effective, unless the patient received emergency stem cell transplantation, while prevention via irradiation of blood or blood products represents the standard of care for this disease. In conclusion, medical practitioners should have a high index of suspicion for this disease. Moreover, future clinical trials targeting and comparing the outcomes of the different therapeutic options for TA-GVHD are required.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erwa Eltayib Elmakki
- Department of Internal Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Jazan University, Jazan, SAU
| | | | - Omar Oraibi
- Department of Internal Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Jazan University, Jazan, SAU
| | - Sameer Alqassimi
- Department of Internal Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Jazan University, Jazan, SAU
| | - Eman Saleh
- Department of Internal Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Jazan University, Jazan, SAU
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Arjunan C, Khetan D, Singh V, Elhence P, Chaudhary RK, Kumar A. Demographics and appropriateness of cellular blood component irradiation practices: Ambispective analysis from a tertiary care center. Transfus Apher Sci 2023:103651. [PMID: 36774274 DOI: 10.1016/j.transci.2023.103651] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/28/2022] [Revised: 01/16/2023] [Accepted: 01/31/2023] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Transfusion-associated graft versus host disease (TA-GVHD) is often underreported. There may also be lapses in TA-GVHD prevention practices due to lack of revision of some of the existing clinical guidelines as well as limited audits on practices of blood component irradiation. This study was undertaken to highlight these shortcomings, and generate data for development of institutional guidelines. METHODS/MATERIALS Study cohort was selected from patients requiring transfusion support during June 2019 to May 2020. Transfusion history of these patients were followed, both retrospectively and prospectively till July 2021. Transfusion requisitions were categorized as IR (with request for irradiation) or NIR (with no request for irradiation) and justified or unjustified according to published international guidelines. RESULTS Total 6963 requisitions for cellular blood components were received from 255 patients included in the study cohort. Of these, 3690 (54.9 %) were IR requisitions, while remaining 3029 (45.1 %) requisitions were NIR. Overall, 4242 (63.1 %) requisition were justified for their irradiation status as per published guidelines and 1595 (23.8 %) were found to be Unjustified while justification could not be assessed for remaining 882 (13.1 %) of the requisitions. The highest proportion of Unjustified demands in NIR requisitions was observed in patients with Severe Aplastic anemia (59.4 %). CONCLUSION Many units were unnecessarily irradiated (7.7 %) while irradiation was missed in 16 % of the requisitions included in analysis which may be attributed to lack of institutional guidelines. We recommend that every centre should adopt a published well-researched guideline including amendments based on review of practices at their center.
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Affiliation(s)
- Charumathy Arjunan
- Department of Transfusion Medicine, Sanjay Gandhi Postgraduate Institute of Medical Sciences, India.
| | - Dheeraj Khetan
- Department of Transfusion Medicine, Sanjay Gandhi Postgraduate Institute of Medical Sciences, India.
| | - Vasundhara Singh
- Department of Transfusion Medicine, Sanjay Gandhi Postgraduate Institute of Medical Sciences, India.
| | - Priti Elhence
- Department of Transfusion Medicine, Sanjay Gandhi Postgraduate Institute of Medical Sciences, India.
| | - R K Chaudhary
- Department of Transfusion Medicine, Sanjay Gandhi Postgraduate Institute of Medical Sciences, India.
| | - Anurag Kumar
- Senior Medical Officer, District Hospital, Unnao, India.
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7
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α-Calcium Sulfate Hemihydrate Bioceramic Prepared via Salt Solution Method to Enhance Bone Regenerative Efficiency. J IND ENG CHEM 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jiec.2022.12.036] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
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8
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Meli A, Linger R, Stevens-Hernandez CJ, Gyongyver G, Marks DC, Aung HH, Tan JCG, Cardigan R, Bruce LJ, New HV. The compound effect of irradiation and familial pseudohyperkalemia on potassium leak from red blood cells. Transfusion 2022; 62:2587-2595. [PMID: 36285891 DOI: 10.1111/trf.17159] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/26/2022] [Revised: 09/28/2022] [Accepted: 09/29/2022] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Familial pseudohyperkalemia (FP) is a rare asymptomatic condition characterized by an increased rate of potassium leak from red blood cells (RBC) on refrigeration. Gamma irradiation compromises RBC membrane integrity and accelerates potassium leakage. Here, we compared the effect of irradiation, applied early or late in storage, on FP versus non-FP RBC. STUDY DESIGN Five FP and 10 non-FP individuals from the National Institute for Health Research Cambridge BioResource, UK, and three FP and six non-FP individuals identified by Australian Red Cross Lifeblood consented to the study. Blood was collected according to standard practice in each center, held overnight at 18-24°C, leucocyte-depleted, and processed into red cell concentrates (RCC) in Saline Adenine Glucose Mannitol. On Day 1, RCC were split equally into six Red Cell Splits (RCS). Two RCS remained non-irradiated, two were irradiated on Day 1 and two were irradiated on Day 14. RBCs were tested over cold storage for quality parameters. RESULTS As expected, non-irradiated FP RCS had significantly higher supernatant potassium levels than controls throughout 28 days of storage (p < .001). When irradiated early, FP RCS released potassium at similar rates to control. When irradiated late, FP RCS supernatants had higher initial post-irradiation potassium concentration than controls but were similar to controls by the end of storage (14 days post-irradiation). No other parameters studied showed a significant difference between FP and control. DISCUSSION FP does not increase the rate of potassium leak from irradiated RBCs. Irradiation may cause a membrane defect similar to that in FP RBCs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Athinoula Meli
- Component Development Laboratory, NHS Blood and Transplant, Cambridge, UK
| | - Rachel Linger
- National Institute for Health Research BioResource-Rare Diseases, Cambridge University Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust, Cambridge, UK
| | - Christian J Stevens-Hernandez
- Component Development Laboratory, NHS Blood and Transplant, Cambridge, UK.,Bristol Institute for Transfusion Sciences, NHS Blood and Transplant, Bristol, UK.,School of Biochemistry, University of Bristol, Bristol, UK
| | - Gyorffy Gyongyver
- Component Development Laboratory, NHS Blood and Transplant, Cambridge, UK.,Bristol Institute for Transfusion Sciences, NHS Blood and Transplant, Bristol, UK
| | - Denese C Marks
- Research and Development, Australian Red Cross Lifeblood, Alexandria, Australia
| | - Htet Htet Aung
- Research and Development, Australian Red Cross Lifeblood, Alexandria, Australia
| | - Joanne C G Tan
- Research and Development, Australian Red Cross Lifeblood, Alexandria, Australia
| | - Rebecca Cardigan
- Component Development Laboratory, NHS Blood and Transplant, Cambridge, UK.,Department of Haematology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
| | - Lesley J Bruce
- Component Development Laboratory, NHS Blood and Transplant, Cambridge, UK.,Bristol Institute for Transfusion Sciences, NHS Blood and Transplant, Bristol, UK
| | - Helen V New
- Clinical Directorate, NHS Blood and Transplant, London, UK
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9
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William N, Bicahlo B, Hansen A, de Korte D, Acker JP. The timing of gamma irradiation and its effect on c
ell‐free
and m
icrovesicle‐bound
hemoglobin. The
BEST
collaborative study. Transfusion 2022; 62:751-757. [DOI: 10.1111/trf.16809] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/10/2021] [Revised: 01/09/2022] [Accepted: 01/09/2022] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Nishaka William
- Department of Laboratory Medicine and Pathology University of Alberta Edmonton Alberta Canada
| | - Beatriz Bicahlo
- Innovation and Portfolio Management Canadian Blood Services Edmonton Alberta Canada
| | - Adele Hansen
- Innovation and Portfolio Management Canadian Blood Services Edmonton Alberta Canada
| | - Dirk de Korte
- Department Product and Process Development Sanquin Blood Bank Amsterdam Netherlands
- Department Blood Cell Research Sanquin Research Amsterdam Netherlands
| | - Jason P. Acker
- Department of Laboratory Medicine and Pathology University of Alberta Edmonton Alberta Canada
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