Increases in heart rate and serum cortisol concentrations in healthy dogs are positively correlated with an indoor waiting-room environment

Effects of Changing Veterinary Handling Techniques on Canine Behaviour and Physiology Part 1: Physiological Measurements

Signs of distress in dogs are often normalized during routine veterinary care, creating an animal welfare concern. We sought to test whether targeted interventions during veterinary visits affect physiological indicators of stress in dogs. Some 28 dogs were examined within four visits across 8 weeks. All dogs received the same care during the first visit and were then randomized into control and intervention groups for visits 2-4. In the intervention group, 14 dogs underwent procedures designed to reduce stress and to enlist their collaboration during examination. The 14 dogs in the control group received routine care. At each visit, heart rate (HR), serum cortisol (CORT), neutrophil lymphocyte ratio (NLR), and creatine kinase (CK) were measured. A composite stress index based on the summed standardized scores for these markers was constructed. No differences in HR, NLR, and CK parameters between groups were found, and both groups had a decrease in CORT by visit four. However, the intervention group showed a greater overall decrease in CORT between the first and fourth visit than the control group (p < 0.04). The composite stress index differed between the first and fourth visits for the intervention group, but not for the control group (Intervention p = 0.03; Control p= 0.288). There was a tendency for the composite stress index to worsen at visit four vs. visit one for the control group. The findings suggest that dogs that participated in adaptive, collaborative exams and procedures designed to minimize fear had a greater reduction in stress over time compared to those receiving standard care.

A single dose of cannabidiol (CBD) positively influences measures of stress in dogs during separation and car travel

Many dogs experience stress when separated from their caregivers, as well as when traveling in vehicles. Pet owners employ various approaches to managing these issues, from training, to giving medications and supplements, often with mixed results. Cannabidiol (CBD) can alleviate stress and anxiety in humans but the effect it has on canine stress is less well-documented. The present study aimed to understand the impact of being left alone and traveling in a car on measures of canine stress, and establish whether a single dose of a tetrahydrocannabinol (THC)-free CBD distillate could positively influence any measures of stress. In a blinded, parallel design study, a population of dogs were either left alone in a familiar room (n = 21) or underwent a short car journey (n = 19). A range of physiological and behavioral measures were collected pre, during and post-test. Significant changes in several stress-related measures (serum cortisol, mean ear temperature, heart rate, heart rate variability, whining and a stressed/anxious behavioral factor) were observed from baseline to test, with the car journey test paradigm eliciting a more pronounced stress response overall. The mitigating effect of CBD treatment varied by measure and test, with some indicating a significant reduction in canine stress compared to the placebo group. Additional research is required to fully understand the complex effect of CBD on canine wellbeing.

Effects of a Novel Gel Formulation of Dog Appeasing Pheromone (DAP) on Behavioral and Physiological Stress Responses in Dogs Undergoing Clinical Examination

Simple Summary

Safeguarding the health of dogs presupposes undergoing regular veterinary visits (VVs). However, the VV can be emotionally challenging, thus impairing the welfare of the patient, also reducing dog and owner compliance. The fear and anxiety experienced by the dogs evokes behavioral and physiological stress responses for adaptive purposes. It is therefore desirable to lower the stress from the visit. With this intent, we tested a gel formulation of a synthetic analogue of the appeasing pheromone secreted by bitches, the dog appeasing pheromone (DAP), as a situational support to improve the perception of the stay in the waiting room and the physical examination. In the waiting room, the dogs exposed to DAP exhibited changes in their behavior, namely significant decrease in lip licking, increase in panting, and nearly significant reduction of low body postures. On the examination table, neither behavioral nor physiological differences were found. DAP did not alter markedly the stress behavior and physiology of dogs during a VV, maybe due to a stress level exceeding the potential efficacy of the product. However, the change of a few stress-associated behaviors suggests that DAP could contribute to improving the welfare of dogs staying in the waiting room before the physical examination.

Abstract

The veterinary visit is necessary for safeguarding the health of dogs, but it can be stressful and threaten both the welfare of the patient and the accuracy of the examination. This randomized, triple-blind, placebo-controlled, crossover study aims at evaluating how dog appeasing pheromone (DAP) in a novel gel formulation influences the behavioral and physiological stress responses of 28 dogs undergoing a standardized clinical examination, while staying in the waiting room (WR) and visited in the examination room (ER). Behavioral responses were studied through behavioral categories and subjective scales (WR and ER). Autonomic response considered heart rate (WR and ER), blood pressure (WR and ER), respiratory rate (ER), and rectal temperature (ER). Neuroendocrine response considered salivary cortisol (WR and ER). In the waiting room, the use of DAP was associated with a significant reduction of lip licking (p = 0.0189), an increase in panting (p = 0.0276), and a reduction close to significance (p = 0.0584) of low body postures. No significant differences were observed within the physiological responses. In the examination room, neither behavioral nor physiological differences were found.

Clinical Features and Risk Factors for Gastrointestinal Complications in Dogs Treated Surgically for Thoracolumbar Intervertebral Disc Extrusion

Gastrointestinal (GI) complications and their clinical implications are poorly characterized in dogs treated surgically for acute thoracolumbar intervertebral disc extrusion (TL-IVDE). The objective of this retrospective study was to characterize GI signs (including vomiting, diarrhea, melena, and hematochezia) in dogs undergoing hemilaminectomy for acute TL-IVDE. One-hundred and sixteen dogs were included. Frequency, type and severity of GI signs during hospitalization, duration of hospitalization and outcome were obtained from the medical record. Potential risk factors for the development of GI signs were explored using univariable and multivariable analyses. Gastrointestinal signs occurred in 55/116 dogs (47%); 22/55 dogs (40%) had one episode and 21/55 (38%) had ≥5 episodes. Diarrhea was the most common (40/55, 73%) while melena was rare (1/55, 2%). GI signs developed in 8/11 dogs (73%) treated perioperatively with both non-steroidal anti-inflammatories and corticosteroids with or without a washout period and in 25/52 dogs (48%) treated prophylactically with proton pump inhibitors. Median hospitalization was 7 days (4-15 days) vs. 5 days (4-11 days) in dogs with or without GI signs, respectively. Duration of hospitalization was associated with development of any GI signs, diarrhea and more severe GI signs (p = 0.001, 0.005, 0.021, respectively). Pre-operative paraplegia with absent pain perception was identified on univariable analysis (p = 0.005) and longer anesthetic duration on multivariable analysis to be associated with development of more severe GI signs (p = 0.047). In dogs undergoing surgery for acute TL-IVDE, GI signs were common and associated with duration of hospitalization and anesthesia. The influence of specific medications and neurologic severity on development of GI signs requires further investigation.

Effects of Waiting Room and Feline Facial Pheromone Experience on Blood Pressure in Cats

Obtaining accurate blood pressure measurements in cats is challenging due to the stressful nature of clinic visits. The objective of this study was to evaluate the effects of veterinary clinic waiting experiences and a feline pheromone spray on blood pressure in the cat. We hypothesized that reduced stress associated with bypassing the waiting room and use of synthetic feline facial pheromone (FFP) spray would result in lower blood pressure. A 2 × 2 factorial design involved two rooms and two FFP treatments. Thirty-nine healthy adult cats were recruited and were systematically assigned to four treatment combinations administered over four visits in 2016 and 2017. Cats were kept in the hospital waiting room or were taken directly to the exam room, with or without FFP treatment. All cats were then acclimated to the exam room for an additional 10 min, where vocalizations were recorded manually, before blood pressure measurements were collected using Doppler ultrasonography. Data were analyzed using generalized linear mixed models, with room × FFP interaction, visit, sex, and trial year in the model. There was no significant effect of waiting room by FFP interaction on blood pressure (n = 0.95). Mean blood pressure was significantly higher at visit 1 than visits 2 and 4 (P < 0.01), but higher at visit 3 than visit 2 (n = 0.02). Mean blood pressure was higher in males (n = 0.01), and males were more likely to be categorized as borderline hypertensive/hypertensive or severely hypertensive (n = 0.01). Number of vocalizations was significantly associated with waiting room by FFP interactions (P < 0.01), with fewer vocalizations associated with bypassing the waiting room and when FFP was provided. In conclusion, although we found some behavioral evidence supporting stress reduction when feline patients bypass the waiting room and are provided with FFP, these interventions did not result in lower blood pressure in a clinical setting.

A Review on Mitigating Fear and Aggression in Dogs and Cats in a Veterinary Setting

Simple Summary

The majority of dogs and cats are fearful during veterinary visits, and some individuals may show aggression as a result. We review ways to avoid negative experiences and promote positive emotions in animals visiting the veterinarian. Whenever an animal is in the practice, the veterinary team should endeavour to make the visit as pleasant as possible, by using non-threatening body language and by creating positive associations. High-value food (unless an animal needs to be fasted) or toys should be used generously throughout the visit. In the interaction with the animals, low-stress handling methods, brief pauses and adjusting the procedure based on the animal’s body language help them to feel secure. Distractions can be used to minimise perceived pain such as from injections. If a known painful area needs to be treated, pain killers are advised. For animals that are very fearful, several medication options are available that can be given prior to the veterinary visit to help them with their fears. With reward-based training, animals can learn to accept veterinary procedures. A stress-free veterinary visit benefits all involved parties—the animals, their owners, as well as the veterinary team.

Abstract

A high proportion of dogs and cats are fearful during veterinary visits, which in some cases may escalate into aggression. Here, we discuss factors that contribute to negative emotions in a veterinary setting and how these can be addressed. We briefly summarise the available evidence for the interventions discussed. The set-up of the waiting area (e.g., spatial dividers; elevated places for cat carriers), tailoring the examination and the treatment to the individual, considerate handling (minimal restraint when possible, avoiding leaning over or cornering animals) and offering high-value food or toys throughout the visit can promote security and, ideally, positive associations. Desensitisation and counterconditioning are highly recommended, both to prevent and address existing negative emotions. Short-term pain from injections can be minimised by using tactile and cognitive distractions and topical analgesics, which are also indicated for painful procedures such as ear cleanings. Recommendations for handling fearful animals to minimise aggressive responses are discussed. However, anxiolytics or sedation should be used whenever there is a risk of traumatising an animal or for safety reasons. Stress-reducing measures can decrease fear and stress in patients and consequently their owners, thus strengthening the relationship with the clients as well as increasing the professional satisfaction of veterinary staff.

Evaluation of stress status using the stress map for guide dog candidates in the training stage using variations in the serum cortisol with nerve growth factor and magnesium ions

Most studies on guide dogs for the blind were conducted to investigate the appropriateness of the animals, including in terms of their breeding, constitution, and temperament. However, research to comprehend the stress status of guide dog candidates in response to their training has been unclear. In this study, the levels of serum cortisol, nerve growth factor (NGF), and magnesium ion (Mg²⁺) levels of guide dog candidates during the three training stages-the elementary, intermediate, and advanced classes-were examined. Dogs were classified based on the contents of the classes and period during the training in which they were subjected. Since the dogs in the elementary class had the lowest serum NGF and Mg²⁺ levels, they were understood to be under mental stress and to be unfamiliar with their new surroundings. In contrast, the serum NGF and Mg²⁺ levels were high in the dogs in the advanced class, though they were demonstrated to be mentally stable and acclimated to their environment. Additionally, they were almost free from the stress caused by daily life, since they had the lowest serum cortisol levels. The status of each dog was plotted on a map consisting of 2 axes representing the serum NGF and Mg²⁺ levels with high or low cortisol levels. Plots could be divided into three domains corresponding to the elementary, intermediate, and advanced classes. Therefore, for working dogs, serum NGF and Mg²⁺ levels in addition to serum cortisol levels may be important factors to comprehend the type of stress situation that each dog was in.

Urine cortisol-creatinine and protein-creatinine ratios in urine samples from healthy dogs collected at home and in hospital

Background

Recently, urine protein:creatinine ratios (UPC) were shown to be lower in urine samples from dogs collected at home (AH) as compared to those collected in hospital (IH). Stress‐inducing procedures and travel to the hospital have been hypothesized to cause prerenal proteinuria.

Objectives

Evaluate patient stress using urine cortisol:creatinine ratios (UCCr) and correlate UCCr to UPC in urine samples obtained AH and IH.

Animals

Thirty‐six healthy, client‐owned dogs.

Methods

Prospective, non‐masked study. Two voided urine samples were obtained (AH and IH). Complete urinalysis as well as UPC and UCCr were performed. Clients graded their dogs' stress level AH, in transport, and IH.

Results

The UCCr was significantly higher in IH samples than in AH samples (P < .0001), but UPC was not significantly different between AH and IH urine samples (P = .14). In all samples and in both collection settings, UCCr was not significantly correlated with UPC. Travel time and time IH were not correlated with change in UCCr or UPC. In 8 dogs with borderline or overt proteinuria, no significant difference was found in UPC between settings, but UCCr was significantly higher in IH samples.

Conclusions and Clinical Importance

The UPC was not higher when measured in urine samples collected IH compared to AH. Dogs had higher UCCr IH, but UCCr was not associated with UPC. Stress, as estimated by UCCr, did not affect proteinuria. Further evidence is needed to support the claim that stress may result in proteinuria in healthy dogs.

The influence of the duration of the preoperative time spent in the veterinary clinic without the owner on the psychogenic and oxidative stress in dogs

The objective of this study was to evaluate the influence of the dog's long-term separation from its owner in the novel environment on the occurrence of psychogenic and oxidative stress. Group I dogs (n=9) were brought to the veterinary clinic and stayed in a kennel room for 12 hr before the surgery, and group II dogs (n=9) -for 10 min before the surgery. Physiological parameters (heart rate (HR) (beats/min) and respiratory rate (fR) (breaths/min)) were measured and blood sampling was done 12 hr before the surgery (T0) for group I dogs and 10 min before the surgery (T1) for both groups dogs. Oxidative stress index (OSI) was determined using spectrophotometer and Rel Assay Diagnostics kits by measuring TAS ant TOS in blood plasma. The cortisol level was measured using AIA-360 Automated Immunoassay Analyzer and ST AIA-pack Cortisol assays. Group I dogs' HR and fR were elevated at T0 and T1, and group II dogs'-at T1 compared to physiological range. OSI and cortisol levels in group I dogs was higher at T1 compared to T0 (P<0.05). There was no significant difference in cortisol level between group I at T0 and group II at T1 (P>0.05). It might be concluded that dogs' longer stay in the novel environment without the owner induced significant changes in OSI and cortisol level, which could lead to slow wound healing and the occurrence of systemic diseases.

Catestatin and vasostatin concentrations in healthy dogs

Background

The neuroendocrine glycoprotein chromogranin A is a useful biomarker in humans for neuroendocrine tumors and stress. Chromogranin A can be measured in both blood and saliva. The objective of this study was to investigate concentrations of and correlation between the chromogranin A epitopes catestatin and vasostatin in healthy dogs accustomed to the sample collection procedures. Blood and saliva samples were collected from 10 research Beagle dogs twice daily for 5 consecutive days, and from 33 privately-owned blood donor dogs in association with 50 different blood donation occasions. All dogs were familiar with sample collection procedures. During each sampling, stress behavior was scored by the same observer using a visual analog scale (VAS) and serum cortisol concentrations. Catestatin and vasostatin were analyzed using radioimmunoassays for dogs.

Results

The dogs showed minimal stress behavior during both saliva sampling and blood sampling as monitored by VAS scores and serum cortisol concentrations. Few and insufficient saliva volumes were obtained and therefore only catestatin could be analyzed. Catestatin concentrations differed significantly and did not correlate significantly with vasostatin concentrations (P < 0.0001). Age, gender, breed, and time of sample collection did not significantly affect concentrations of plasma catestatin, vasostatin, and saliva catestatin.

Conclusions

The normal ranges of plasma catestatin (0.53–0.98 nmol/l), vasostatin (0.11–1.30 nmol/l), and saliva catestatin (0.31–1.03 nmol/l) concentrations in healthy dogs accustomed to the sampling procedures were determined. Separate interpretation of the different chromogranin A epitopes from either saliva or plasma is recommended.

Changes in serum NGF levels after the exercise load in dogs: a pilot study

Serum nerve growth factor (NGF) levels are increased by the external stress in mice, humans and horses; however, similar variations have been unclear in dogs. Since dogs are usually subjected to conditions of work, exercise and activity as important partners of humans, we measured serum NGF levels post-exercise and compared them with serum cortisol levels, as a biomarker of physical stress. Serum cortisol levels were immediately elevated post-exercise and returned to basal levels within 1 hr. On the other hand, serum NGF levels were significantly increased 1 hr post-exercise and gradually returned to basal levels. Further research is necessary; nevertheless, we have demonstrated for the first time that serum NGF levels respond to exercise stress in dogs.

The preanalytic phase in veterinary clinical pathology

This article presents the general causes of preanalytic variability with a few examples showing specialists and practitioners that special and improved care should be given to this too often neglected phase. The preanalytic phase of clinical pathology includes all the steps from specimen collection to analysis. It is the phase where most laboratory errors occur in human, and probably also in veterinary clinical pathology. Numerous causes may affect the validity of the results, including technical factors, such as the choice of anticoagulant, the blood vessel sampled, and the duration and conditions of specimen handling. While the latter factors can be defined, influence of biologic and physiologic factors such as feeding and fasting, stress, and biologic and endocrine rhythms can often not be controlled. Nevertheless, as many factors as possible should at least be documented. The importance of the preanalytic phase is often not given the necessary attention, although the validity of the results and consequent clinical decision making and medical management of animal patients would likely be improved if the quality of specimens submitted to the laboratory was optimized.