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Zamora Z, Lui LY, Sparks LM, Justice J, Lyles M, Gentle L, Gregory H, Yeo RX, Kershaw EE, Stefanovic-Racic M, Newman AB, Kritchevsky S, Toledo FGS. Percutaneous biopsies of skeletal muscle and adipose tissue in individuals older than 70: methods and outcomes in the Study of Muscle, Mobility and Aging (SOMMA). GeroScience 2024; 46:3419-3428. [PMID: 38315316 PMCID: PMC11009187 DOI: 10.1007/s11357-024-01087-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/01/2023] [Accepted: 01/26/2024] [Indexed: 02/07/2024] Open
Abstract
Biopsies of muscle and adipose tissue (AT) are useful tools to gain insights into the aging processes in these tissues. However, they are invasive procedures and their risk/benefit profile in older adults can be altered by sarcopenia, frailty, poor healing, and multimorbidity. Their success rates, safety, and tolerability in a geriatric population have not been reported in detail. Investigators in the Study of Muscle, Mobility, and Aging (SOMMA) performed biopsies of muscle and AT in older adults and prospectively collected data on biopsy success rates, safety, and tolerability. We report here the methods and outcomes of these two procedures. In total, 861 participants (aged 70-94) underwent percutaneous biopsies of the Vastus lateralis muscle with a Bergstrom needle. A subset (n = 241) also underwent percutaneous biopsies of the abdominal subcutaneous AT with the tumescent liposuction technique. Success rate was assessed by the percentage of biopsies yielding adequate specimens for analyses; tolerability by pain scores; and safety by frequency of adverse events. All data were prospectively collected. The overall muscle biopsy success rate was 97.1% and was modestly lower in women. The AT biopsy success rate was 95.9% and slightly lower in men. Minimal or no pain was reported in 68% of muscle biopsies and in 83% of AT biopsies. Adverse events occurred in 2.67% of muscle biopsies and 4.15% of AT biopsies. None was serious. In older adults, percutaneous muscle biopsies and abdominal subcutaneous AT biopsies have an excellent safety profile, often achieve adequate tissue yields for analyses, and are well tolerated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zeke Zamora
- Internal Medicine Section On Gerontology and Geriatrics, Wake Forest School of Medicine, Winston-Salem, NC, USA
- Sticht Center for Healthy Aging and Alzheimer's Prevention, Wake Forest School of Medicine, Winston-Salem, NC, USA
| | - Li-Yung Lui
- Research Institute, California Pacific Medical Center, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Lauren M Sparks
- Translational Research Institute, AdventHealth, Orlando, FL, USA
| | - Jamie Justice
- Internal Medicine Section On Gerontology and Geriatrics, Wake Forest School of Medicine, Winston-Salem, NC, USA
- Sticht Center for Healthy Aging and Alzheimer's Prevention, Wake Forest School of Medicine, Winston-Salem, NC, USA
| | - Mary Lyles
- Internal Medicine Section On Gerontology and Geriatrics, Wake Forest School of Medicine, Winston-Salem, NC, USA
- Sticht Center for Healthy Aging and Alzheimer's Prevention, Wake Forest School of Medicine, Winston-Salem, NC, USA
| | - Landon Gentle
- Sticht Center for Healthy Aging and Alzheimer's Prevention, Wake Forest School of Medicine, Winston-Salem, NC, USA
| | - Heather Gregory
- Sticht Center for Healthy Aging and Alzheimer's Prevention, Wake Forest School of Medicine, Winston-Salem, NC, USA
| | - Reichelle X Yeo
- Translational Research Institute, AdventHealth, Orlando, FL, USA
| | - Erin E Kershaw
- Division of Endocrinology and Metabolism, Dept. of Medicine, School of Medicine, University of Pittsburgh, 200 Lothrop Street BST-W1055, Pittsburgh, PA, 15261, USA
| | - Maja Stefanovic-Racic
- Division of Endocrinology and Metabolism, Dept. of Medicine, School of Medicine, University of Pittsburgh, 200 Lothrop Street BST-W1055, Pittsburgh, PA, 15261, USA
| | - Anne B Newman
- Dept. of Epidemiology, School of Public Health, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - Stephen Kritchevsky
- Internal Medicine Section On Gerontology and Geriatrics, Wake Forest School of Medicine, Winston-Salem, NC, USA
- Sticht Center for Healthy Aging and Alzheimer's Prevention, Wake Forest School of Medicine, Winston-Salem, NC, USA
| | - Frederico G S Toledo
- Division of Endocrinology and Metabolism, Dept. of Medicine, School of Medicine, University of Pittsburgh, 200 Lothrop Street BST-W1055, Pittsburgh, PA, 15261, USA.
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Hansson KA, Eftestøl E. Scaling of nuclear numbers and their spatial arrangement in skeletal muscle cell size regulation. Mol Biol Cell 2023; 34:pe3. [PMID: 37339435 PMCID: PMC10398882 DOI: 10.1091/mbc.e22-09-0424] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/19/2022] [Revised: 03/29/2023] [Accepted: 04/28/2023] [Indexed: 06/22/2023] Open
Abstract
Many cells display considerable functional plasticity and depend on the regulation of numerous organelles and macromolecules for their maintenance. In large cells, organelles also need to be carefully distributed to supply the cell with essential resources and regulate intracellular activities. Having multiple copies of the largest eukaryotic organelle, the nucleus, epitomizes the importance of scaling gene products to large cytoplasmic volumes in skeletal muscle fibers. Scaling of intracellular constituents within mammalian muscle fibers is, however, poorly understood, but according to the myonuclear domain hypothesis, a single nucleus supports a finite amount of cytoplasm and is thus postulated to act autonomously, causing the nuclear number to be commensurate with fiber volume. In addition, the orderly peripheral distribution of myonuclei is a hallmark of normal cell physiology, as nuclear mispositioning is associated with impaired muscle function. Because underlying structures of complex cell behaviors are commonly formalized by scaling laws and thus emphasize emerging principles of size regulation, the work presented herein offers more of a unified conceptual platform based on principles from physics, chemistry, geometry, and biology to explore cell size-dependent correlations of the largest mammalian cell by means of scaling.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kenth-Arne Hansson
- Section for Health and Exercise Physiology, Inland Norway University of Applied Sciences, 2624 Lillehammer, Norway
| | - Einar Eftestøl
- Department of Biosciences, University of Oslo, 0371 Oslo, Norway
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Gabler-Smith MK, Berger AJ, Gay DM, Kinsey ST, Westgate AJ, Koopman HN. Microvascular anatomy suggests varying aerobic activity levels in the adipose tissues of diving tetrapods. J Comp Physiol B 2022; 192:623-645. [PMID: 35779114 DOI: 10.1007/s00360-022-01446-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/04/2021] [Revised: 05/25/2022] [Accepted: 06/06/2022] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Adipose tissue has many important functions including metabolic energy storage, endocrine functions, thermoregulation and structural support. Given these varied functions, the microvascular characteristics within the tissue will have important roles in determining rates/limits of exchange of nutrients, waste, gases and molecular signaling molecules between adipose tissue and blood. Studies on skeletal muscle have suggested that tissues with higher aerobic capacity contain higher microvascular density (MVD) with lower diffusion distances (DD) than less aerobically active tissues. However, little is known about MVD in adipose tissue of most vertebrates; therefore, we measured microvascular characteristics (MVD, DD, diameter and branching) and cell size to explore the comparative aerobic activity in the adipose tissue across diving tetrapods, a group of animals facing additional physiological and metabolic stresses associated with diving. Adipose tissues of 33 animals were examined, including seabirds, sea turtles, pinnipeds, baleen whales and toothed whales. MVD and DD varied significantly (P < 0.001) among the groups, with seabirds generally having high MVD, low DD and small adipocytes. These characteristics suggest that microvessel arrangement in short duration divers (seabirds) reflects rapid lipid turnover, compared to longer duration divers (beaked whales) which have relatively lower MVD and greater DD, perhaps reflecting the requirement for tissue with lower metabolic activity, minimizing energetic costs during diving. Across all groups, predictable scaling patterns in MVD and DD such as those observed in skeletal muscle did not emerge, likely reflecting the fact that unlike skeletal muscle, adipose tissue performs many different functions in marine organisms, often within the same tissue compartment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Molly K Gabler-Smith
- Biology and Marine Biology, University of North Carolina Wilmington, Wilmington, NC, USA. .,Organismic and Evolutionary Biology, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, USA.
| | - Amy J Berger
- Biology and Marine Biology, University of North Carolina Wilmington, Wilmington, NC, USA
| | - D Mark Gay
- Biology and Marine Biology, University of North Carolina Wilmington, Wilmington, NC, USA
| | - Stephen T Kinsey
- Biology and Marine Biology, University of North Carolina Wilmington, Wilmington, NC, USA
| | - Andrew J Westgate
- Biology and Marine Biology, University of North Carolina Wilmington, Wilmington, NC, USA
| | - Heather N Koopman
- Biology and Marine Biology, University of North Carolina Wilmington, Wilmington, NC, USA
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Ajime TT, Serré J, Wüst RCI, Messa GAM, Poffé C, Swaminathan A, Maes K, Janssens W, Troosters T, Degens H, Gayan-Ramirez G. Two Weeks of Smoking Cessation Reverse Cigarette Smoke-Induced Skeletal Muscle Atrophy and Mitochondrial Dysfunction in Mice. Nicotine Tob Res 2021; 23:143-151. [PMID: 31965191 DOI: 10.1093/ntr/ntaa016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/27/2019] [Accepted: 01/20/2020] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Apart from its adverse effects on the respiratory system, cigarette smoking also induces skeletal muscle atrophy and dysfunction. Whether short-term smoking cessation can restore muscle mass and function is unknown. We, therefore, studied the impact of 1- and 2-week smoking cessation on skeletal muscles in a mouse model. METHODS Male mice were divided into four groups: Air-exposed (14 weeks); cigarette smoke (CS)-exposed (14 weeks); CS-exposed (13 weeks) followed by 1-week cessation; CS-exposed (12 weeks) followed by 2 weeks cessation to examine exercise capacity, physical activity levels, body composition, muscle function, capillarization, mitochondrial function and protein expression in the soleus, plantaris, and diaphragm muscles. RESULTS CS-induced loss of body and muscle mass was significantly improved within 1 week of cessation due to increased lean and fat mass. Mitochondrial respiration and protein levels of the respiratory complexes in the soleus were lower in CS-exposed mice, but similar to control values after 2 weeks of cessation. Exposing isolated soleus muscles to CS extracts reduced mitochondrial respiration that was reversed after removing the extract. While physical activity was reduced in all groups, exercise capacity, limb muscle force, fatigue resistance, fiber size and capillarization, and diaphragm cytoplasmic HIF-1α were unaltered by CS-exposure. However, CS-induced diaphragm atrophy and increased capillary density were not seen after 2 weeks of smoking cessation. CONCLUSION In male mice, 2 weeks of smoking cessation reversed smoking-induced mitochondrial dysfunction, limb muscle mass loss, and diaphragm muscle atrophy, highlighting immediate benefits of cessation on skeletal muscles. IMPLICATIONS Our study demonstrates that CS-induced skeletal muscle mitochondrial dysfunction and atrophy are significantly improved by 2 weeks of cessation in male mice. We show for the first time that smoking cessation as short as 1 to 2 weeks is associated with immediate beneficial effects on skeletal muscle structure and function with the diaphragm being particularly sensitive to CS-exposure and cessation. This could help motivate smokers to quit smoking as early as possible. The knowledge that smoking cessation has potential positive extrapulmonary effects is particularly relevant for patients referred to rehabilitation programs and those admitted to hospitals suffering from acute or chronic muscle deterioration yet struggling with smoking cessation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tom Tanjeko Ajime
- Laboratory of Respiratory Diseases and Thoracic Surgery (BREATHE), Department of Chronic Diseases, Metabolism and Ageing (CHROMETA), KU-Leuven, Leuven, Belgium.,Research Group for Rehabilitation in Internal Disorders, Department of Rehabilitation Sciences, KU-Leuven, Leuven, Belgium.,Department of Life Sciences, Research Center for Musculoskeletal Science and Sports Medicine, Manchester Metropolitan University, Manchester, UK
| | - Jef Serré
- Laboratory of Respiratory Diseases and Thoracic Surgery (BREATHE), Department of Chronic Diseases, Metabolism and Ageing (CHROMETA), KU-Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Rob C I Wüst
- Laboratory of Myology, Department of Human Movement Sciences, Faculty of Behavioral and Movement Sciences, Amsterdam Movement Sciences, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Guy Anselme Mpaka Messa
- Department of Life Sciences, Research Center for Musculoskeletal Science and Sports Medicine, Manchester Metropolitan University, Manchester, UK
| | - Chiel Poffé
- Exercise Physiology Research Group, Department of Movement Sciences, KU-Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | | | - Karen Maes
- Laboratory of Respiratory Diseases and Thoracic Surgery (BREATHE), Department of Chronic Diseases, Metabolism and Ageing (CHROMETA), KU-Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Wim Janssens
- Laboratory of Respiratory Diseases and Thoracic Surgery (BREATHE), Department of Chronic Diseases, Metabolism and Ageing (CHROMETA), KU-Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Thierry Troosters
- Laboratory of Respiratory Diseases and Thoracic Surgery (BREATHE), Department of Chronic Diseases, Metabolism and Ageing (CHROMETA), KU-Leuven, Leuven, Belgium.,Research Group for Rehabilitation in Internal Disorders, Department of Rehabilitation Sciences, KU-Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Hans Degens
- Department of Life Sciences, Research Center for Musculoskeletal Science and Sports Medicine, Manchester Metropolitan University, Manchester, UK.,Lithuanian Sports University, Kaunas, Lithuania
| | - Ghislaine Gayan-Ramirez
- Laboratory of Respiratory Diseases and Thoracic Surgery (BREATHE), Department of Chronic Diseases, Metabolism and Ageing (CHROMETA), KU-Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
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Effect of New Zealand Blackcurrant Extract on Isometric Contraction-Induced Fatigue and Recovery: Potential Muscle-Fiber Specific Effects. Sports (Basel) 2020; 8:sports8100135. [PMID: 33076273 PMCID: PMC7602451 DOI: 10.3390/sports8100135] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/20/2020] [Revised: 09/24/2020] [Accepted: 10/14/2020] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Abstract
New Zealand blackcurrant (NZBC) extract has shown performance-enhancing effects during cycling, running and sport climbing. We examined effects of NZBC extract on (1) voluntary and twitch force of the quadriceps femoris muscles during repeated isometric contraction-induced fatigue, (2) twitch force during recovery and (3) muscle fiber-specific effects. Familiarized recreationally active males (n = 12, age: 24 ± 5 yrs; height: 180 ± 5 cm; body mass: 89 ± 11 kg) performed sixteen, 5-s voluntary maximal isometric contractions (iMVC) separated by 3-s rest. Twitch force was recorded before, during the 3-s rests and 5-min recovery. Supplementation consisted of 7-days intake of NZBC extract (600 mg∙day−1 containing 210 mg anthocyanin) in a double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled crossover design with a 14-days washout. NZBC extract allowed for greater force in the first quartile of the iMVCs. Twitch force at baseline was 12% higher with NZBC extract (p = 0.05). However, there was no effect of NZBC for twitch force during the 16-iMVCs and recovery. Based on the maximum post-activation potentiation during the placebo 16-iMVCs, four subjects were classified of having a predominant type I or II muscle fiber typology. In type II, NZBC extract provided a trend for increased MVC force (~14%) in the first quartile and for type I in the fourth quartile (~10%). In type I, NZBC extract seemed to have higher twitch forces during the fatiguing exercise protocol and recovery, indicating increased fatigue resistance. New Zealand blackcurrant extract affects force during repeated maximal isometric contractions. Future work on mechanisms by NZBC extract for muscle fiber-specific fatigue-induced force responses is warranted.
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Regular endurance exercise of overloaded muscle of young and old male mice does not attenuate hypertrophy and improves fatigue resistance. GeroScience 2020; 43:741-757. [PMID: 32643063 PMCID: PMC8110681 DOI: 10.1007/s11357-020-00224-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/2020] [Accepted: 06/26/2020] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
It has been observed that there is an inverse relationship between fiber size and oxidative capacity due to oxygen, ADP, and ATP diffusion limitations. We aimed to see if regular endurance exercise alongside a hypertrophic stimulus would lead to compromised adaptations to both, particularly in older animals. Here we investigated the effects of combining overload with regular endurance exercise in young (12 months) and old (26 months) male mice. The plantaris muscles of these mice were overloaded through denervation of synergists to induce hypertrophy and the mice ran on a treadmill for 30 min per day for 6 weeks. The hypertrophic response to overload was not blunted by endurance exercise, and the increase in fatigue resistance with endurance exercise was not reduced by overload. Old mice demonstrated less hypertrophy than young mice, which was associated with impaired angiogenesis and a reduction in specific tension. The data of this study suggest that combining endurance exercise and overload induces the benefits of both types of exercise without compromising adaptations to either. Additionally, the attenuated hypertrophic response to overload in old animals may be due to a diminished capacity for capillary growth.
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7
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Egginton S, Kissane RWP, Al-Shammari AA, Gaffney EA. Quantifying fiber type-specific local capillary supply. J Appl Physiol (1985) 2020; 128:458-459. [PMID: 32073333 DOI: 10.1152/japplphysiol.00853.2019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Stuart Egginton
- School of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Biological Sciences, University of Leeds, Leeds, Leeds, United Kingdom
| | - Roger W P Kissane
- School of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Biological Sciences, University of Leeds, Leeds, Leeds, United Kingdom
| | - Abdullah A Al-Shammari
- Department of Mathematics, Faculty of Sciences, Kuwait University, Khaldiya, Kuwait.,Department of Genetics and Bioinformatics, Dasman Diabetes Institute, Dasman, Kuwait
| | - Eamonn A Gaffney
- Wolfson Centre for Mathematical Biology, Mathematical Institute, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom
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8
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Morphological alterations of mouse skeletal muscles during early ageing are muscle specific. Exp Gerontol 2019; 125:110684. [DOI: 10.1016/j.exger.2019.110684] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/08/2019] [Revised: 07/12/2019] [Accepted: 08/05/2019] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
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3D analysis of capillary network in skeletal muscle of obese insulin-resistant mice. Histochem Cell Biol 2019; 152:323-331. [PMID: 31473807 DOI: 10.1007/s00418-019-01810-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 08/24/2019] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
In obesity, the skeletal muscle capillary network regresses and the insulin-mediated capillary recruitment is impaired. However, it has been shown that in the early stage of advanced obesity, an increased functional vascular response can partially compensate for other mechanisms of insulin resistance. The present study aimed to investigate the changes in the capillary network around individual muscle fibres during the early stage of obesity and insulin resistance in mice using 3D analysis. Capillaries and muscle fibres of the gluteus maximus muscles of seven high-fat-diet-induced obese and insulin-resistant mice and seven age-matched lean healthy mice were immunofluorescently labelled in thick transverse muscle sections. Stacks of images were acquired using confocal microscope. Capillary network characteristics were estimated by methods of quantitative image analysis. Muscle fibre typing was performed by histochemical analysis of myosin heavy chain isoforms on thin serial sections of skeletal muscle. Capillary length per muscle fibre length and capillary length per muscle fibre surface were increased by 27% and 23%, respectively, around small muscle fibres in obese mice, while there were no significant comparative differences around large fibres of obese and lean mice. Furthermore, the capillarization was larger around small compared to large fibres and there was a shift toward fast type myosin heavy chain isoforms, with no significant changes in muscle fibre diameters, tortuosity and anisotropy in obese mice. Overall, the results show that obese insulin-resistant mice have selective increase in capillarization around small predominantly intermediate muscle fibres, which is most likely related to the impaired glucose metabolism characteristic of type 2 diabetes.
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Hendrickse P, Degens H. The role of the microcirculation in muscle function and plasticity. J Muscle Res Cell Motil 2019; 40:127-140. [PMID: 31165949 PMCID: PMC6726668 DOI: 10.1007/s10974-019-09520-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/25/2019] [Accepted: 05/31/2019] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
It is widely acknowledged that maintenance of muscle, size, strength and endurance is necessary for quality of life and the role that skeletal muscle microcirculation plays in muscle health is becoming increasingly clear. Here we discuss the role that skeletal muscle microcirculation plays in muscle function and plasticity. Besides the density of the capillary network, also the distribution of capillaries is crucial for adequate muscle oxygenation. While capillaries are important for oxygen delivery, the capillary supply to a fibre is related to fibre size rather than oxidative capacity. This link between fibre size and capillary supply is also reflected by the similar time course of hypertrophy and angiogenesis, and the cross-talk between capillaries and satellite cells. A dense vascular network may in fact be more important for a swift repair of muscle damage than the abundance of satellite cells and a lower capillary density may also attenuate the hypertrophic response. Capillary rarefaction does not only occur during ageing, but also during conditions as chronic heart failure, where endothelial apoptosis has been reported to precede muscle atrophy. It has been suggested that capillary rarefaction precedes sarcopenia. If so, stimulation of angiogenesis by for instance endurance training before a hypertrophic stimulus may enhance the hypertrophic response. The microcirculation may thus well be a little-explored target to improve muscle function and the success of rehabilitation programmes during ageing and chronic diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paul Hendrickse
- Research Centre for Musculoskeletal Science & Sports Medicine, School of Healthcare Science, Manchester Metropolitan University, John Dalton Building; Chester Street, Manchester, M1 5GD, UK.,Lithuanian Sports University, Kaunas, Lithuania
| | - Hans Degens
- Research Centre for Musculoskeletal Science & Sports Medicine, School of Healthcare Science, Manchester Metropolitan University, John Dalton Building; Chester Street, Manchester, M1 5GD, UK. .,Lithuanian Sports University, Kaunas, Lithuania. .,University of Medicine and Pharmacy of Targu Mures, Targu Mures, Romania.
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11
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Larsson L, Degens H, Li M, Salviati L, Lee YI, Thompson W, Kirkland JL, Sandri M. Sarcopenia: Aging-Related Loss of Muscle Mass and Function. Physiol Rev 2019; 99:427-511. [PMID: 30427277 DOI: 10.1152/physrev.00061.2017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 708] [Impact Index Per Article: 141.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Sarcopenia is a loss of muscle mass and function in the elderly that reduces mobility, diminishes quality of life, and can lead to fall-related injuries, which require costly hospitalization and extended rehabilitation. This review focuses on the aging-related structural changes and mechanisms at cellular and subcellular levels underlying changes in the individual motor unit: specifically, the perikaryon of the α-motoneuron, its neuromuscular junction(s), and the muscle fibers that it innervates. Loss of muscle mass with aging, which is largely due to the progressive loss of motoneurons, is associated with reduced muscle fiber number and size. Muscle function progressively declines because motoneuron loss is not adequately compensated by reinnervation of muscle fibers by the remaining motoneurons. At the intracellular level, key factors are qualitative changes in posttranslational modifications of muscle proteins and the loss of coordinated control between contractile, mitochondrial, and sarcoplasmic reticulum protein expression. Quantitative and qualitative changes in skeletal muscle during the process of aging also have been implicated in the pathogenesis of acquired and hereditary neuromuscular disorders. In experimental models, specific intervention strategies have shown encouraging results on limiting deterioration of motor unit structure and function under conditions of impaired innervation. Translated to the clinic, if these or similar interventions, by saving muscle and improving mobility, could help alleviate sarcopenia in the elderly, there would be both great humanitarian benefits and large cost savings for health care systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lars Larsson
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Basic and Clinical Muscle Biology Group, Karolinska Institutet , Stockholm , Sweden ; Section of Clinical Neurophysiology, Department of Clinical Neuroscience, Karolinska Institutet , Stockholm , Sweden ; Department of Biobehavioral Health, The Pennsylvania State University , University Park, Pennsylvania ; School of Healthcare Science, Metropolitan University , Manchester , United Kingdom ; Institute of Sport Science and Innovations, Lithuanian Sports University , Kaunas , Lithuania ; Clinical Genetics Unit, Department of Woman and Child Health, University of Padova , Padova , Italy ; IRP Città della Speranza, Padova , Italy ; Department of Biology, Texas A&M University , College Station, Texas ; Robert and Arlene Kogod Center on Aging, Mayo Clinic , Rochester, Minnesota ; Department of Biomedical Science, Venetian Institute of Molecular Medicine, University of Padova , Padova , Italy
| | - Hans Degens
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Basic and Clinical Muscle Biology Group, Karolinska Institutet , Stockholm , Sweden ; Section of Clinical Neurophysiology, Department of Clinical Neuroscience, Karolinska Institutet , Stockholm , Sweden ; Department of Biobehavioral Health, The Pennsylvania State University , University Park, Pennsylvania ; School of Healthcare Science, Metropolitan University , Manchester , United Kingdom ; Institute of Sport Science and Innovations, Lithuanian Sports University , Kaunas , Lithuania ; Clinical Genetics Unit, Department of Woman and Child Health, University of Padova , Padova , Italy ; IRP Città della Speranza, Padova , Italy ; Department of Biology, Texas A&M University , College Station, Texas ; Robert and Arlene Kogod Center on Aging, Mayo Clinic , Rochester, Minnesota ; Department of Biomedical Science, Venetian Institute of Molecular Medicine, University of Padova , Padova , Italy
| | - Meishan Li
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Basic and Clinical Muscle Biology Group, Karolinska Institutet , Stockholm , Sweden ; Section of Clinical Neurophysiology, Department of Clinical Neuroscience, Karolinska Institutet , Stockholm , Sweden ; Department of Biobehavioral Health, The Pennsylvania State University , University Park, Pennsylvania ; School of Healthcare Science, Metropolitan University , Manchester , United Kingdom ; Institute of Sport Science and Innovations, Lithuanian Sports University , Kaunas , Lithuania ; Clinical Genetics Unit, Department of Woman and Child Health, University of Padova , Padova , Italy ; IRP Città della Speranza, Padova , Italy ; Department of Biology, Texas A&M University , College Station, Texas ; Robert and Arlene Kogod Center on Aging, Mayo Clinic , Rochester, Minnesota ; Department of Biomedical Science, Venetian Institute of Molecular Medicine, University of Padova , Padova , Italy
| | - Leonardo Salviati
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Basic and Clinical Muscle Biology Group, Karolinska Institutet , Stockholm , Sweden ; Section of Clinical Neurophysiology, Department of Clinical Neuroscience, Karolinska Institutet , Stockholm , Sweden ; Department of Biobehavioral Health, The Pennsylvania State University , University Park, Pennsylvania ; School of Healthcare Science, Metropolitan University , Manchester , United Kingdom ; Institute of Sport Science and Innovations, Lithuanian Sports University , Kaunas , Lithuania ; Clinical Genetics Unit, Department of Woman and Child Health, University of Padova , Padova , Italy ; IRP Città della Speranza, Padova , Italy ; Department of Biology, Texas A&M University , College Station, Texas ; Robert and Arlene Kogod Center on Aging, Mayo Clinic , Rochester, Minnesota ; Department of Biomedical Science, Venetian Institute of Molecular Medicine, University of Padova , Padova , Italy
| | - Young Il Lee
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Basic and Clinical Muscle Biology Group, Karolinska Institutet , Stockholm , Sweden ; Section of Clinical Neurophysiology, Department of Clinical Neuroscience, Karolinska Institutet , Stockholm , Sweden ; Department of Biobehavioral Health, The Pennsylvania State University , University Park, Pennsylvania ; School of Healthcare Science, Metropolitan University , Manchester , United Kingdom ; Institute of Sport Science and Innovations, Lithuanian Sports University , Kaunas , Lithuania ; Clinical Genetics Unit, Department of Woman and Child Health, University of Padova , Padova , Italy ; IRP Città della Speranza, Padova , Italy ; Department of Biology, Texas A&M University , College Station, Texas ; Robert and Arlene Kogod Center on Aging, Mayo Clinic , Rochester, Minnesota ; Department of Biomedical Science, Venetian Institute of Molecular Medicine, University of Padova , Padova , Italy
| | - Wesley Thompson
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Basic and Clinical Muscle Biology Group, Karolinska Institutet , Stockholm , Sweden ; Section of Clinical Neurophysiology, Department of Clinical Neuroscience, Karolinska Institutet , Stockholm , Sweden ; Department of Biobehavioral Health, The Pennsylvania State University , University Park, Pennsylvania ; School of Healthcare Science, Metropolitan University , Manchester , United Kingdom ; Institute of Sport Science and Innovations, Lithuanian Sports University , Kaunas , Lithuania ; Clinical Genetics Unit, Department of Woman and Child Health, University of Padova , Padova , Italy ; IRP Città della Speranza, Padova , Italy ; Department of Biology, Texas A&M University , College Station, Texas ; Robert and Arlene Kogod Center on Aging, Mayo Clinic , Rochester, Minnesota ; Department of Biomedical Science, Venetian Institute of Molecular Medicine, University of Padova , Padova , Italy
| | - James L Kirkland
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Basic and Clinical Muscle Biology Group, Karolinska Institutet , Stockholm , Sweden ; Section of Clinical Neurophysiology, Department of Clinical Neuroscience, Karolinska Institutet , Stockholm , Sweden ; Department of Biobehavioral Health, The Pennsylvania State University , University Park, Pennsylvania ; School of Healthcare Science, Metropolitan University , Manchester , United Kingdom ; Institute of Sport Science and Innovations, Lithuanian Sports University , Kaunas , Lithuania ; Clinical Genetics Unit, Department of Woman and Child Health, University of Padova , Padova , Italy ; IRP Città della Speranza, Padova , Italy ; Department of Biology, Texas A&M University , College Station, Texas ; Robert and Arlene Kogod Center on Aging, Mayo Clinic , Rochester, Minnesota ; Department of Biomedical Science, Venetian Institute of Molecular Medicine, University of Padova , Padova , Italy
| | - Marco Sandri
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Basic and Clinical Muscle Biology Group, Karolinska Institutet , Stockholm , Sweden ; Section of Clinical Neurophysiology, Department of Clinical Neuroscience, Karolinska Institutet , Stockholm , Sweden ; Department of Biobehavioral Health, The Pennsylvania State University , University Park, Pennsylvania ; School of Healthcare Science, Metropolitan University , Manchester , United Kingdom ; Institute of Sport Science and Innovations, Lithuanian Sports University , Kaunas , Lithuania ; Clinical Genetics Unit, Department of Woman and Child Health, University of Padova , Padova , Italy ; IRP Città della Speranza, Padova , Italy ; Department of Biology, Texas A&M University , College Station, Texas ; Robert and Arlene Kogod Center on Aging, Mayo Clinic , Rochester, Minnesota ; Department of Biomedical Science, Venetian Institute of Molecular Medicine, University of Padova , Padova , Italy
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12
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Landers-Ramos RQ, Prior SJ. The Microvasculature and Skeletal Muscle Health in Aging. Exerc Sport Sci Rev 2018; 46:172-179. [PMID: 29652695 DOI: 10.1249/jes.0000000000000151] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Aging and aging-related declines in physical activity are associated with physical and metabolic impairments. Skeletal muscle capillarization is reduced in sedentary older adults, may contribute to impairments in skeletal muscle, and is modifiable by exercise training. This article examines the hypothesis that preservation of skeletal muscle capillarization is essential to maintain metabolism, fitness, and function with aging.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rian Q Landers-Ramos
- Baltimore Veterans Affairs Geriatric Research, Education and Clinical Center.,Department of Medicine, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore
| | - Steven J Prior
- Baltimore Veterans Affairs Geriatric Research, Education and Clinical Center.,Department of Medicine, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore.,Department of Kinesiology, University of Maryland School of Public Health, College Park, MD
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13
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Moore DR, Kelly RP, Devries MC, Churchward-Venne TA, Phillips SM, Parise G, Johnston AP. Low-load resistance exercise during inactivity is associated with greater fibre area and satellite cell expression in older skeletal muscle. J Cachexia Sarcopenia Muscle 2018; 9:747-754. [PMID: 29761654 PMCID: PMC6104111 DOI: 10.1002/jcsm.12306] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/08/2017] [Revised: 03/07/2018] [Accepted: 03/21/2018] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Age-related sarcopenia is accelerated by physical inactivity. Low-load resistance exercise (LLRE) counters inactivity-induced muscle atrophy in older adults, but changes in muscle fibre morphology are unstudied. We aimed to determine the impact of LLRE during short-term inactivity (step-reduction) on muscle fibre size and capillarity as well as satellite cell (SC) content in older skeletal muscle. METHODS Fourteen older (~71 years) male adults underwent 14 days of step reduction (<1500 steps/day) while performing six sessions of LLRE (~30% maximal strength) with one leg (SR + EX) while the contralateral leg served as an untrained control (SR). Seven healthy ambulatory age-matched male adults (~69 years) served as a comparator group (COM). Muscle biopsies were taken from the vastus lateralis after 14 days, and immunohistochemical analysis was performed to determine muscle fibre cross-sectional area (CSA), myonuclear content, SC content (PAX7+ cells), and total (C:F) and fibre type-specific (C:Fi) capillary-to-fibre ratios. RESULTS Type I and II fibre CSA was greater in SR + EX compared with SR. Whereas there were no differences across fibre types between SR + EX and CON, type II fibre CSA was significantly lower in SR compared with COM. Type II myonuclear domain was greater in SR + EX compared with COM and SR. Pax7+ cells associated with type I and II fibres were lower in SR compared with SR + EX. Type II PAX7+ cells were also lower in SR compared with COM with a similar trend for type I fibres. There were trends for a lower C:Fi in SR compared with SR + EX for both fibre types with no differences for each compared with COM. CONCLUSIONS Minimal LLRE during a period of decreased physical activity is associated with greater muscle fibre CSA, SC content, and capillarization. These results support the use of LLRE as an effective countermeasure to inactivity-induced alterations in muscle morphology with age.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel R Moore
- Faculty of Kinesiology and Physical Education, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - Ryan P Kelly
- Department of Applied Human Sciences, University of Prince Edward Island, Charlottetown, PE, Canada
| | | | | | - Stuart M Phillips
- Department of Kinesiology, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON, Canada
| | - Gianni Parise
- Department of Kinesiology, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON, Canada
| | - Adam P Johnston
- Department of Applied Human Sciences, University of Prince Edward Island, Charlottetown, PE, Canada
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14
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Eržen I, Janáček J, Kreft M, Kubínová L, Cvetko E. Capillary Network Morphometry of Pig Soleus Muscle Significantly Changes in 24 Hours After Death. J Histochem Cytochem 2018; 66:23-31. [PMID: 29095670 PMCID: PMC5761944 DOI: 10.1369/0022155417737061] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/12/2017] [Accepted: 09/20/2017] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Capillary network characteristics are invaluable for diagnostics of muscle diseases. Biopsy material is limited in size and mostly not accessible for intensive research. Therefore, especially in human tissue, studies are performed on autopsy material. To approach the problem whether it is reliable to deduce hypotheses from autopsy material to explain physiological and pathological processes, we studied capillarity in pig soleus muscle 1 and 24 hr after death. Capillaries and muscle fibers were immunofluorescently marked, and images were acquired with a confocal microscope. Characteristics of the capillary network were estimated by image analysis methods using several plugins of the Ellipse program. Twenty-four hours after death, the measured characteristics of the capillary network differ by up to 50% when compared with samples excised 1 hr after death. Muscle fiber diameter, the measured capillary length, and tortuosity were reduced, and capillary network became more anisotropic. The main postmortem change that affects capillaries is evidently geometric deformation of muscle tissue. In conclusion, when comparing results from biopsy samples with those from autopsy samples, the effect of postmortem changes on the measured parameters must be carefully considered.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ida Eržen
- Institute of Anatomy, Faculty of Medicine, University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Jiří Janáček
- Department of Biomathematics, Institute of Physiology, Czech Academy of Sciences, Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Marko Kreft
- Biotechnical Faculty, University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia
- Faculty of Medicine, University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia
- Celica Biomedical, Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Lucie Kubínová
- Department of Biomathematics, Institute of Physiology, Czech Academy of Sciences, Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Erika Cvetko
- Institute of Anatomy, Faculty of Medicine, University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia
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15
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Barnouin Y, McPhee JS, Butler‐Browne G, Bosutti A, De Vito G, Jones DA, Narici M, Behin A, Hogrel J, Degens H. Coupling between skeletal muscle fiber size and capillarization is maintained during healthy aging. J Cachexia Sarcopenia Muscle 2017; 8:647-659. [PMID: 28382740 PMCID: PMC5566646 DOI: 10.1002/jcsm.12194] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/18/2016] [Revised: 01/16/2017] [Accepted: 01/26/2017] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND As muscle capillarization is related to the oxidative capacity of the muscle and the size of muscle fibres, capillary rarefaction may contribute to sarcopenia and functional impairment in older adults. Therefore, it is important to assess how ageing affects muscle capillarization and the interrelationship between fibre capillary supply with the oxidative capacity and size of the fibres. METHODS Muscle biopsies from healthy recreationally active young (22 years; 14 men and 5 women) and older (74 years; 22 men and 6 women) people were assessed for muscle capillarization and the distribution of capillaries with the method of capillary domains. Oxidative capacity of muscle fibres was assessed with quantitative histochemistry for succinate dehydrogenase (SDH) activity. RESULTS There was no significant age-related reduction in muscle fibre oxidative capacity. Despite 18% type II fibre atrophy (P = 0.019) and 23% fewer capillaries per fibre (P < 0.002) in the old people, there was no significant difference in capillary distribution between young and old people, irrespective of sex. The capillary supply to a fibre was primarily determined by fibre size and only to a small extent by oxidative capacity, irrespective of age and sex. Based on SDH, the maximal oxygen consumption supported by a capillary did not differ significantly between young and old people. CONCLUSIONS The similar quantitative and qualitative distribution of capillaries within muscle from healthy recreationally active older people and young adults indicates that the age-related capillary rarefaction, which does occur, nevertheless maintains the coupling between skeletal muscle fibre size and capillarization during healthy ageing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yoann Barnouin
- School of Healthcare ScienceManchester Metropolitan UniversityChester StreetManchesterM1 5GDUK
| | - Jamie S. McPhee
- School of Healthcare ScienceManchester Metropolitan UniversityChester StreetManchesterM1 5GDUK
| | - Gillian Butler‐Browne
- Institut de Myologie, UPMC UM 76, INSERM U 974, CNRS UMR 7215Pitle‐Salpetriere Hospital47‐83 Boulevard de l'Hopital 75013ParisFrance
| | - Alessandra Bosutti
- School of Healthcare ScienceManchester Metropolitan UniversityChester StreetManchesterM1 5GDUK
- Istituto di Anatomia Patologica, Dipartimento di Scienze Mediche, Chirurgiche e della SaluteUniversity of Trieste, Cattinara HospitalStrada di Fiume 44734149TriesteItaly
| | - Giuseppe De Vito
- Physiotherapy & Sports Science, Health Sciences CentreSchool of Public HealthBelfieldDublin 4D04 V1W8Ireland
| | - David A. Jones
- School of Healthcare ScienceManchester Metropolitan UniversityChester StreetManchesterM1 5GDUK
| | - Marco Narici
- Division of Medical Sciences & Graduate Entry Medicine, School of Medicine, Faculty of Medicine & Health Sciences, MRC‐ARUK Centre of Excellence for Musculoskeletal Ageing Research, Derby Royal HospitalUniversity of NottinghamUttoxeter RoadDerbyDE22 3DTUK
| | - Anthony Behin
- AP‐HP—Centre de Référence de Pathologies Neuromusculaire Paris Est—Institut de MyologieParisFrance
| | - Jean‐Yves Hogrel
- Institut de Myologie, UPMC UM 76, INSERM U 974, CNRS UMR 7215Pitle‐Salpetriere Hospital47‐83 Boulevard de l'Hopital 75013ParisFrance
| | - Hans Degens
- School of Healthcare ScienceManchester Metropolitan UniversityChester StreetManchesterM1 5GDUK
- Lithuanian Sports University6 Sporto StLT‐44221KaunasLithuania
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16
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Omairi S, Matsakas A, Degens H, Kretz O, Hansson KA, Solbrå AV, Bruusgaard JC, Joch B, Sartori R, Giallourou N, Mitchell R, Collins-Hooper H, Foster K, Pasternack A, Ritvos O, Sandri M, Narkar V, Swann JR, Huber TB, Patel K. Enhanced exercise and regenerative capacity in a mouse model that violates size constraints of oxidative muscle fibres. eLife 2016; 5. [PMID: 27494364 PMCID: PMC4975572 DOI: 10.7554/elife.16940] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/14/2016] [Accepted: 07/19/2016] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
A central tenet of skeletal muscle biology is the existence of an inverse relationship between the oxidative fibre capacity and its size. However, robustness of this relationship is unknown. We show that superimposition of Estrogen-related receptor gamma (Errγ) on the myostatin (Mtn) mouse null background (Mtn-/-/ErrγTg/+) results in hypertrophic muscle with a high oxidative capacity thus violating the inverse relationship between fibre size and oxidative capacity. We also examined the canonical view that oxidative muscle phenotype positively correlate with Satellite cell number, the resident stem cells of skeletal muscle. Surprisingly, hypertrophic fibres from Mtn-/-/ErrγTg/+ mouse showed satellite cell deficit which unexpectedly did not affect muscle regeneration. These observations 1) challenge the concept of a constraint between fibre size and oxidative capacity and 2) indicate the important role of the microcirculation in the regenerative capacity of a muscle even when satellite cell numbers are reduced. DOI:http://dx.doi.org/10.7554/eLife.16940.001
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Affiliation(s)
- Saleh Omairi
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Reading, Reading, United Kingdom
| | | | - Hans Degens
- School of Healthcare Science, Manchester Metropolitan University, Manchester, United Kingdom.,Lithuanian Sports University, Kaunas, Lithuania
| | - Oliver Kretz
- Renal Division, University Medical Center Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany.,Faculty of Medicine, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Kenth-Arne Hansson
- Centre for Integrative Neuroplasticity, Department of Biosciences, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
| | - Andreas Våvang Solbrå
- Centre for Integrative Neuroplasticity, Department of Biosciences, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway.,Department of Physics, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
| | - Jo C Bruusgaard
- Centre for Integrative Neuroplasticity, Department of Biosciences, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway.,Department of Health Sciences, Kristiania University College, Oslo, Norway
| | - Barbara Joch
- Department of Neuroanatomy, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany.,Faculty of Medicine, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Roberta Sartori
- Venetian Institute of Molecular Medicine, University of Padua, Padua, Italy
| | - Natasa Giallourou
- Department of Food and Nutritional Sciences, University of Reading, Reading, United Kingdom
| | - Robert Mitchell
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Reading, Reading, United Kingdom
| | | | - Keith Foster
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Reading, Reading, United Kingdom
| | - Arja Pasternack
- Department of Bacteriology and Immunology, Haartman Institute, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Olli Ritvos
- Department of Bacteriology and Immunology, Haartman Institute, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Marco Sandri
- Venetian Institute of Molecular Medicine, University of Padua, Padua, Italy
| | - Vihang Narkar
- Institute of Molecular Medicine, University of Health Science Center, Houston, Texas
| | - Jonathan R Swann
- Department of Food and Nutritional Sciences, University of Reading, Reading, United Kingdom
| | - Tobias B Huber
- Renal Division, University Medical Center Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany.,Faculty of Medicine, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany.,BIOSS Center for Biological Signalling Studies, Albert-Ludwigs-University Freiburg, Houston, Texas.,FRIAS, Freiburg Institute for Advanced Studies and Center for Biological System Analysis ZBSA, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Ketan Patel
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Reading, Reading, United Kingdom.,FRIAS, Freiburg Institute for Advanced Studies and Center for Biological System Analysis ZBSA, Freiburg, Germany
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17
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Ballak SB, Yap MH, Harding PJ, Degens H. Validation of a New Semi-Automated Technique to Evaluate Muscle Capillarization. ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY 2016; 876:87-93. [PMID: 26782199 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4939-3023-4_11] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/13/2023]
Abstract
The method of capillary domains has often been used to study capillarization of skeletal and heart muscle. However, the conventional data processing method using a digitizing tablet is an arduous and time-consuming task. Here we compare a new semi-automated capillary domain data collection and analysis in muscle tissue with the standard capillary domain method. The capillary density (1481±59 vs. 1447±54 caps mm(-2); R2:0.99; P<0.01) and heterogeneity of capillary spacing (0.085±0.002 vs. 0.085±0.002; R2:0.95; P<0.01) were similar in both methods. The fiber cross-sectional area correlated well between the methods (R2:0.84; P<0.01) and did not differ significantly (~8% larger in the old than new method at P=0.08). The latter was likely due to differences in outlining the contours between the two methods. In conclusion, the semi-automated method gives quantitatively and qualitatively similar data as the conventional method and saves a considerable amount of time.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sam B Ballak
- School of Healthcare Science Cognitive Motor Function Research Group, Manchester Metropolitan University, Manchester, UK.
- Faculty of Human Movement Sciences, Laboratory for Myology, MOVE Research Institute Amsterdam, VU University Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
| | - Moi H Yap
- School of Healthcare Science Cognitive Motor Function Research Group, Manchester Metropolitan University, Manchester, UK
| | - Peter J Harding
- School of Healthcare Science Cognitive Motor Function Research Group, Manchester Metropolitan University, Manchester, UK
| | - Hans Degens
- School of Healthcare Science Cognitive Motor Function Research Group, Manchester Metropolitan University, Manchester, UK
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18
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Ballak SB, Busé-Pot T, Harding PJ, Yap MH, Deldicque L, de Haan A, Jaspers RT, Degens H. Blunted angiogenesis and hypertrophy are associated with increased fatigue resistance and unchanged aerobic capacity in old overloaded mouse muscle. AGE (DORDRECHT, NETHERLANDS) 2016; 38:39. [PMID: 26970774 PMCID: PMC5006008 DOI: 10.1007/s11357-016-9894-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/02/2015] [Accepted: 02/16/2016] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
We hypothesize that the attenuated hypertrophic response in old mouse muscle is (1) partly due to a reduced capillarization and angiogenesis, which is (2) accompanied by a reduced oxidative capacity and fatigue resistance in old control and overloaded muscles, that (3) can be rescued by the antioxidant resveratrol. To investigate this, the hypertrophic response, capillarization, oxidative capacity, and fatigue resistance of m. plantaris were compared in 9- and 25-month-old non-treated and 25-month-old resveratrol-treated mice. Overload increased the local capillary-to-fiber ratio less in old (15 %) than in adult (59 %) muscle (P < 0.05). Although muscles of old mice had a higher succinate dehydrogenase (SDH) activity (P < 0.05) and a slower fiber type profile (P < 0.05), the isometric fatigue resistance was similar in 9- and 25-month-old mice. In both age groups, the fatigue resistance was increased to the same extent after overload (P < 0.01), without a significant change in SDH activity, but an increased capillary density (P < 0.05). Attenuated angiogenesis during overload may contribute to the attenuated hypertrophic response in old age. Neither was rescued by resveratrol supplementation. Changes in fatigue resistance with overload and aging were dissociated from changes in SDH activity, but paralleled those in capillarization. This suggests that capillarization plays a more important role in fatigue resistance than oxidative capacity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sam B Ballak
- School of Healthcare Science, Manchester Metropolitan University, Chester Street, John Dalton Building, Manchester, M1 5GD, UK
- Laboratory for Myology, Move Research Institute Amsterdam, Faculty of Behavioural and Movement Sciences, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Tinelies Busé-Pot
- Laboratory for Myology, Move Research Institute Amsterdam, Faculty of Behavioural and Movement Sciences, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Peter J Harding
- School of Healthcare Science, Manchester Metropolitan University, Chester Street, John Dalton Building, Manchester, M1 5GD, UK
| | - Moi H Yap
- School of Healthcare Science, Manchester Metropolitan University, Chester Street, John Dalton Building, Manchester, M1 5GD, UK
| | - Louise Deldicque
- Exercise Physiology Research Group, Department of Kinesiology, FaBeR, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Arnold de Haan
- School of Healthcare Science, Manchester Metropolitan University, Chester Street, John Dalton Building, Manchester, M1 5GD, UK
- Laboratory for Myology, Move Research Institute Amsterdam, Faculty of Behavioural and Movement Sciences, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Richard T Jaspers
- Laboratory for Myology, Move Research Institute Amsterdam, Faculty of Behavioural and Movement Sciences, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Hans Degens
- School of Healthcare Science, Manchester Metropolitan University, Chester Street, John Dalton Building, Manchester, M1 5GD, UK.
- Lithuanian Sports University, Kaunas, Lithuania.
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19
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The Angiotensin Converting Enzyme Insertion/Deletion Polymorphism Modifies Exercise-Induced Muscle Metabolism. PLoS One 2016; 11:e0149046. [PMID: 26982073 PMCID: PMC4794249 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0149046] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/03/2015] [Accepted: 01/25/2016] [Indexed: 01/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Objective A silencer region (I-allele) within intron 16 of the gene for the regulator of vascular perfusion, angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE), is implicated in phenotypic variation of aerobic fitness and the development of type II diabetes. We hypothesised that the reportedly lower aerobic performance in non-carriers compared to carriers of the ACE I-allele, i.e. ACE-DD vs. ACE-ID/ACE-II genotype, is associated with alterations in activity-induced glucose metabolism and capillarisation in exercise muscle. Methods Fifty-three, not-specifically trained Caucasian men carried out a one-legged bout of cycling exercise to exhaustion and/or participated in a marathon, the aim being to identify and validate genotype effects on exercise metabolism. Respiratory exchange ratio (RER), serum glucose and lipid concentration, glycogen, and metabolite content in vastus lateralis muscle based on ultra-performance lipid chromatography-mass spectrometry (UPLC-MS), were assessed before and after the cycling exercise in thirty-three participants. Serum metabolites were measured in forty subjects that completed the marathon. Genotype effects were assessed post-hoc. Results Cycling exercise reduced muscle glycogen concentration and this tended to be affected by the ACE I-allele (p = 0.09). The ACE-DD genotype showed a lower maximal RER and a selective increase in serum glucose concentration after exercise compared to ACE-ID and ACE-II genotypes (+24% vs. +2% and –3%, respectively). Major metabolites of mitochondrial metabolism (i.e. phosphoenol pyruvate, nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate, L-Aspartic acid, glutathione) were selectively affected in vastus lateralis muscle by exercise in the ACE-DD genotype. Capillary-to-fibre ratio was 24%-lower in the ACE-DD genotype. Individuals with the ACE-DD genotype demonstrated an abnormal increase in serum glucose to 7.7 mM after the marathon. Conclusion The observations imply a genetically modulated role for ACE in control of glucose import and oxidation in working skeletal muscle. ACE-DD genotypes thereby transit into a pre-diabetic state with exhaustive exercise, which relates to a lowered muscle capillarisation, and deregulation of mitochondria-associated metabolism.
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20
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Abstract
Aerobic exercise training leads to cardiovascular changes that markedly increase aerobic power and lead to improved endurance performance. The functionally most important adaptation is the improvement in maximal cardiac output which is the result of an enlargement in cardiac dimension, improved contractility, and an increase in blood volume, allowing for greater filling of the ventricles and a consequent larger stroke volume. In parallel with the greater maximal cardiac output, the perfusion capacity of the muscle is increased, permitting for greater oxygen delivery. To accommodate the higher aerobic demands and perfusion levels, arteries, arterioles, and capillaries adapt in structure and number. The diameters of the larger conduit and resistance arteries are increased minimizing resistance to flow as the cardiac output is distributed in the body and the wall thickness of the conduit and resistance arteries is reduced, a factor contributing to increased arterial compliance. Endurance training may also induce alterations in the vasodilator capacity, although such adaptations are more pronounced in individuals with reduced vascular function. The microvascular net increases in size within the muscle allowing for an improved capacity for oxygen extraction by the muscle through a greater area for diffusion, a shorter diffusion distance, and a longer mean transit time for the erythrocyte to pass through the smallest blood vessels. The present article addresses the effect of endurance training on systemic and peripheral cardiovascular adaptations with a focus on humans, but also covers animal data.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ylva Hellsten
- Department of Nutrition, Exercise and Sports, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Michael Nyberg
- Department of Nutrition, Exercise and Sports, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
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21
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Kitada T, Machida S, Naito H. Influence of muscle fibre composition on muscle oxygenation during maximal running. BMJ Open Sport Exerc Med 2015; 1:e000062. [PMID: 27900139 PMCID: PMC5117045 DOI: 10.1136/bmjsem-2015-000062] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 10/28/2015] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Aims To investigate the relationship between muscle oxygenation (specifically, the levels of oxygenated haemoglobin and myoglobin [oxyHb/Mb]) during maximal running and muscle fibre composition, and to determine whether muscle fibre composition can be non-invasively estimated from oxyHb/Mb levels during maximal running. Methods Eight male runners (, 60.9±
4.6 mL·kg−1·min−1) performed an incremental running test on a treadmill. OxyHb/Mb levels of the vastus lateralis during maximal running were measured by near-infrared spectroscopy (NIRS). Muscle fibre composition of the vastus lateralis was determined from muscle biopsy samples from the same region measured by NIRS, and the fibre types were classified as type I, type IIa, or type IIb fibres using traditional pH-sensitive ATPase staining. Type I and type IIa fibres together were defined as oxidative fibres. Results OxyHb/Mb levels during running were lowest at exhaustion in all participants. OxyHb/Mb levels at exhaustion were positively correlated with the percentages of type I fibres (r=0.755, p<0.05) and oxidative fibres (r=0.944, p<0.01). Conclusions We conclude that higher oxyHb/Mb levels at exhaustion during maximal running are correlated with a higher percentage of oxidative fibres, indicating the potential importance of oxidative fibres in the maintenance of oxyHb/Mb levels during maximal running. Additionally, muscle fibre composition could be non-invasively estimated from oxyHb/Mb levels during maximal running tests in runners.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tomoharu Kitada
- Graduate School of Health and Sports Science , Juntendo University , Inzai-shi, Chiba , Japan
| | - Shuichi Machida
- Graduate School of Health and Sports Science , Juntendo University , Inzai-shi, Chiba , Japan
| | - Hisashi Naito
- Graduate School of Health and Sports Science , Juntendo University , Inzai-shi, Chiba , Japan
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22
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van Ginkel S, Amami M, Dela F, Niederseer D, Narici MV, Niebauer J, Scheiber P, Müller E, Flück M. Adjustments of muscle capillarity but not mitochondrial protein with skiing in the elderly. Scand J Med Sci Sports 2014; 25:e360-7. [PMID: 25262765 DOI: 10.1111/sms.12324] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 08/14/2014] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Downhill skiing in the elderly increases maximal oxygen uptake (VO2max) and carbohydrate handling, and produces muscle hypertrophy. We hypothesized that adjustments of the cellular components of aerobic glucose combustion in knee extensor muscle, and cardiovascular adjustments, would increase in proportion to VO2max. Nineteen healthy elderly subjects (age 67.5 ± 2.9 years) who completed 28.5 days of guided downhill skiing over 3 months were assessed for anthropometric variables, cardiovascular parameters (heart rate, hematocrit), VO2max, and compared with controls (n = 20). Biopsies of vastus lateralis muscle were analyzed for capillary density and expression of respiratory chain markers (NDUFA9, SDHA, UQCRC1, ATP5A1) and the glucose transporter GLUT4. Statistical significance was assessed with a repeated analysis of variance and Fisher's post-hoc test at a P value of 5%. VO2max increased selectively with ski training (+7 ± 2%). Capillary density (+11 ± 5%) and capillary-to-fiber ratio (12 ± 5%), but not the concentration of metabolic proteins, in vastus lateralis were increased after skiing. Cardiovascular parameters did not change. Fold changes in VO2max and capillary-to-fiber ratio were correlated and were under genetic control by polymorphisms of the regulator of vascular tone, angiotensin converting enzyme. The observations indicate that increased VO2max after recreational downhill ski training is associated with improved capillarity in a mainly recruited muscle group.
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Affiliation(s)
- S van Ginkel
- The Institute for Biomedical Research into Human Movement and Health (IRM), Manchester Metropolitan University, Manchester, UK.,MOVE Research Institute Amsterdam, Faculty of Human Movement Sciences, VU University Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - M Amami
- The Institute for Biomedical Research into Human Movement and Health (IRM), Manchester Metropolitan University, Manchester, UK
| | - F Dela
- Xlab, Department of Biomedical Sciences, Center for Healthy Aging, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - D Niederseer
- University Institute of Sports Medicine, Prevention and Rehabilitation, Paracelsus Medical University, Salzburg, Austria
| | - M V Narici
- The Institute for Biomedical Research into Human Movement and Health (IRM), Manchester Metropolitan University, Manchester, UK.,School of Graduate Entry Medicine and Health, Derby Royal Hospital, University of Nottingham, Derby, UK
| | - J Niebauer
- University Institute of Sports Medicine, Prevention and Rehabilitation, Paracelsus Medical University, Salzburg, Austria
| | - P Scheiber
- Department of Sport Science and Kinesiology, University of Salzburg, Salzburg, Austria
| | - E Müller
- Department of Sport Science and Kinesiology, University of Salzburg, Salzburg, Austria
| | - M Flück
- The Institute for Biomedical Research into Human Movement and Health (IRM), Manchester Metropolitan University, Manchester, UK.,Department of Orthopaedics, University Hospital Balgrist, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
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23
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Gavin TP, Kraus RM, Carrithers JA, Garry JP, Hickner RC. Aging and the Skeletal Muscle Angiogenic Response to Exercise in Women. J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci 2014; 70:1189-97. [PMID: 25182597 DOI: 10.1093/gerona/glu138] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/28/2014] [Accepted: 07/15/2014] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Whether aging lowers skeletal muscle basal capillarization and angiogenesis remains controversial. To investigate the effects of aging on skeletal muscle capillarization, eight young (YW) and eight aged (AW) women completed 8 weeks of exercise training. The response and relationships of muscle capillarization, interstitial vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF), and microvascular blood flow to aerobic exercise training were investigated. Vastus lateralis biopsies were obtained before and after exercise training for the measurement of capillarization. Muscle interstitial VEGF protein and microvascular blood flow were measured at rest and during submaximal exercise at PRE, 1-WK, and 8-WKS by microdialysis. Exercise training increased (20%-25%) capillary contacts of type I, IIA, and IIB fibers in YW and AW. Interstitial VEGF protein was higher in AW than YW at rest and was higher in YW than AW during exercise independent of training status. Differences in muscle capillarization were not explained by secreted VEGF nor were differences in VEGF explained by microvascular blood flow. These results confirm that aging (57-76 years age range) does not impair the muscle angiogenic response to exercise training, although sex differences may exist in similarly trained women and men.
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Affiliation(s)
- Timothy P Gavin
- Department of Health and Kinesiology, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana.
| | | | | | - Joseph P Garry
- Department of Family Medicine and Community Health, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis
| | - Robert C Hickner
- Departments of Kinesiology and Physiology, Human Performance Laboratory, East Carolina Diabetes and Obesity Institute, Center for Health Disparities, East Carolina University, Greenville, North Carolina. Department of Biokinetics, Exercise and Leisure Sciences, College of Health Sciences, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Westville Campus, South Africa
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24
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Al-Shammari AA, Gaffney EA, Egginton S. Modelling capillary oxygen supply capacity in mixed muscles: Capillary domains revisited. J Theor Biol 2014; 356:47-61. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jtbi.2014.04.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/18/2014] [Revised: 04/11/2014] [Accepted: 04/15/2014] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
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25
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Liu G, Mac Gabhann F, Popel AS. Effects of fiber type and size on the heterogeneity of oxygen distribution in exercising skeletal muscle. PLoS One 2012; 7:e44375. [PMID: 23028531 PMCID: PMC3445540 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0044375] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/02/2012] [Accepted: 08/06/2012] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
The process of oxygen delivery from capillary to muscle fiber is essential for a tissue with variable oxygen demand, such as skeletal muscle. Oxygen distribution in exercising skeletal muscle is regulated by convective oxygen transport in the blood vessels, oxygen diffusion and consumption in the tissue. Spatial heterogeneities in oxygen supply, such as microvascular architecture and hemodynamic variables, had been observed experimentally and their marked effects on oxygen exchange had been confirmed using mathematical models. In this study, we investigate the effects of heterogeneities in oxygen demand on tissue oxygenation distribution using a multiscale oxygen transport model. Muscles are composed of different ratios of the various fiber types. Each fiber type has characteristic values of several parameters, including fiber size, oxygen consumption, myoglobin concentration, and oxygen diffusivity. Using experimentally measured parameters for different fiber types and applying them to the rat extensor digitorum longus muscle, we evaluated the effects of heterogeneous fiber size and fiber type properties on the oxygen distribution profile. Our simulation results suggest a marked increase in spatial heterogeneity of oxygen due to fiber size distribution in a mixed muscle. Our simulations also suggest that the combined effects of fiber type properties, except size, do not contribute significantly to the tissue oxygen spatial heterogeneity. However, the incorporation of the difference in oxygen consumption rates of different fiber types alone causes higher oxygen heterogeneity compared to control cases with uniform fiber properties. In contrast, incorporating variation in other fiber type-specific properties, such as myoglobin concentration, causes little change in spatial tissue oxygenation profiles.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gang Liu
- Systems Biology Laboratory, Department of Biomedical Engineering, School of Medicine, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland, United States of America.
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26
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Re-evaluating the Use of Voronoi Tessellations in the Assessment of Oxygen Supply from Capillaries in Muscle. Bull Math Biol 2012; 74:2204-31. [DOI: 10.1007/s11538-012-9753-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/27/2012] [Accepted: 07/03/2012] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
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27
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Janáček J, Cvetko E, Kubínová L, Travnik L, Eržen I. A novel method for evaluation of capillarity in human skeletal muscles from confocal 3D images. Microvasc Res 2011; 81:231-8. [DOI: 10.1016/j.mvr.2010.11.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/13/2010] [Revised: 10/20/2010] [Accepted: 11/12/2010] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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28
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ERŽEN I, JANÁČEK J, KUBÍNOVÁ L. Characterization of the Capillary Network in Skeletal Muscles From 3D Data. Physiol Res 2011; 60:1-13. [DOI: 10.33549/physiolres.931988] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
In this review we present immunohistochemical methods for visualization of capillaries and muscle fibres in thick muscle sections. Special attention is paid to the procedures that preserve good morphology. Applying confocal microscopy and virtual 3D stereological grids, or tracing of capillaries in virtual reality, length of capillaries within a muscle volume or length of capillaries adjacent to a muscle fibre per fibre length, fibre surface area or fibre volume can be evaluated by an unbiased approach. Moreover, 3D models of capillaries and muscle fibres can be produced. Comparison of the developed methods with counting capillary profiles from 2D sections is discussed and the reader is warned that counting capillary profiles from 2D sections can underestimate the capillary length by as much as 75 percent. Application of the described 3D methodology is illustrated by the anatomical remodelling of capillarity during acute denervation and early reinnervation in the rat soleus and extensor digitorum longus muscles.
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Affiliation(s)
- I. ERŽEN
- Institute of Anatomy, Faculty of Medicine, University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia
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29
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Abstract
This article explores how common misunderstandings about the microcirculation - that capillary supply varies directly with O(2) demand, that local capillary supply in muscle is determined by fibre type and that it is appropriate to model capillary distribution as either random or in a fixed geometric pattern - arise from quantifying capillarity by simple measures of quantitative extent, rather than the more functionally relevant qualitative distribution. We show that the latter approach reveals exquisite control of angiogenesis that determines the location of new vessels with astonishing accuracy, motivating a reappraisal of the physiological remodelling process and a new approach to computational investigations into peripheral O(2) transport.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stuart Egginton
- Department of Physiology, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, UK.
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30
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Janácek J, Cebasek V, Kubínová L, Ribaric S, Erzen I. 3D visualization and measurement of capillaries supplying metabolically different fiber types in the rat extensor digitorum longus muscle during denervation and reinnervation. J Histochem Cytochem 2009; 57:437-47. [PMID: 19124841 DOI: 10.1369/jhc.2008.953018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
The aim of this study was to determine whether capillarity in the denervated and reinnervated rat extensor digitorum longus muscle (EDL) is scaled by muscle fiber oxidative potential. We visualized capillaries adjacent to a metabolically defined fiber type and estimated capillarity of fibers with very high oxidative potential (O) vs fibers with very low oxidative potential (G). Capillaries and muscle fiber types were shown by a combined triple immunofluorescent technique and the histochemical method for NADH-tetrazolium reductase. Stacks of images were captured by a confocal microscope. Applying the Ellipse program, fibers were outlined, and the diameter, perimeter, cross-sectional area, length, surface area, and volume within the stack were calculated for both fiber types. Using the Tracer plug-in module, capillaries were traced within the three-dimensional (3D) volume, the length of capillaries adjacent to individual muscle fibers was measured, and the capillary length per fiber length (Lcap/Lfib), surface area (Lcap/Sfib), and volume (Lcap/Vfib) were calculated. Furthermore, capillaries and fibers of both types were visualized in 3D. In all experimental groups, O and G fibers significantly differed in girth, Lcap/Sfib, and Lcap/Vfib, but not in Lcap/Lfib. We conclude that capillarity in the EDL is scaled by muscle fiber size and not by muscle fiber oxidative potential.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jirí Janácek
- Department of Biomathematics, Institute of Physiology, Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic, Prague, Czech Republic
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31
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Fiber Capillary Supply Related To Fiber Size And Oxidative Capacity In Human And Rat Skeletal Muscle. ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY 2009; 645:75-80. [DOI: 10.1007/978-0-387-85998-9_12] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/04/2022]
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32
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Wüst RC, Jaspers RT, van der Laarse WJ, Degens H. Skeletal muscle capillarization and oxidative metabolism in healthy smokers. Appl Physiol Nutr Metab 2008; 33:1240-5. [DOI: 10.1139/h08-116] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
We investigated whether the lower fatigue resistance in smokers than in nonsmokers is caused by a compromised muscle oxidative metabolism. Using calibrated histochemistry, we found no differences in succinate dehydrogenase (SDH) activity, myoglobin concentration, or capillarization in sections of the vastus lateralis muscle between smokers and nonsmokers. The relationship between fatigue resistance and SDH activity in nonsmokers (r = 0.93; p = 0.02) is absent in smokers. This indicates that the lower muscle fatigue resistance of smokers can likely be attributed to causes other than differences in oxidative metabolism and capillarization.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rob C.I. Wüst
- Institute for Biomedical Research into Human Movement and Health, Manchester Metropolitan University, John Dalton Building, Chester Street, Manchester, M1 5 GD, UK
- Research Institute MOVE, Faculty of Human Movement Sciences, VU University Amsterdam, the Netherlands
- Department of Physiology, Institute for Cardiovascular Research, VU University Medical Centre, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Richard T. Jaspers
- Institute for Biomedical Research into Human Movement and Health, Manchester Metropolitan University, John Dalton Building, Chester Street, Manchester, M1 5 GD, UK
- Research Institute MOVE, Faculty of Human Movement Sciences, VU University Amsterdam, the Netherlands
- Department of Physiology, Institute for Cardiovascular Research, VU University Medical Centre, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Willem J. van der Laarse
- Institute for Biomedical Research into Human Movement and Health, Manchester Metropolitan University, John Dalton Building, Chester Street, Manchester, M1 5 GD, UK
- Research Institute MOVE, Faculty of Human Movement Sciences, VU University Amsterdam, the Netherlands
- Department of Physiology, Institute for Cardiovascular Research, VU University Medical Centre, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Hans Degens
- Institute for Biomedical Research into Human Movement and Health, Manchester Metropolitan University, John Dalton Building, Chester Street, Manchester, M1 5 GD, UK
- Research Institute MOVE, Faculty of Human Movement Sciences, VU University Amsterdam, the Netherlands
- Department of Physiology, Institute for Cardiovascular Research, VU University Medical Centre, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
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33
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Egginton S. Invited review: activity-induced angiogenesis. Pflugers Arch 2008; 457:963-77. [DOI: 10.1007/s00424-008-0563-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 154] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/18/2008] [Accepted: 07/24/2008] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
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34
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Degens H, Koşar ŞN, Hopman MT, de Haan A. The time course of denervation-induced changes is similar in soleus muscles of adult and old rats. Appl Physiol Nutr Metab 2008; 33:299-308. [DOI: 10.1139/h07-189] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Muscle denervation is accompanied by atrophy and a decline in oxidative capacity. We investigated whether the time course of adaptations following denervation of the soleus muscle differs in adult (5 months old) and older adult (25 months old) rats. We denervated the soleus muscle of the left leg, while the right leg served as an internal control. Two weeks after denervation, muscle mass was decreased both in adult and old animals to, respectively, 57% and 54% (p < 0.001) and capillary to fibre ratio (C:F) decreased to 51% and 50% (p < 0.01) of the control values. Yet, the capillary density was increased in older adult but not in adult muscles, indicating that the regression of the capillary bed during denervation lags behind the decrease in fibre size in the soleus muscle of the older rats. One week after denervation the optical density of sections stained for succinate dehydrogenase was 83% and 79% (p < 0.05) of control adult and older adult muscles, respectively, and then remained stable. This indicates that during the first week of denervation loss of oxidative capacity occurred at a relatively higher rate than that of muscle mass. No major changes occurred between 2 and 4 weeks of denervation, except for an increase in the proportion of hybrid (I/IIa) fibres in 4 week denervated muscles (adult 10% vs. 23%; old 1% vs. 13%; p < 0.05). Except for changes in capillarisation, the time course of atrophy and decrease in oxidative capacity following denervation was similar in soleus muscles from adult and old rats.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hans Degens
- Institute for Biomedical Research into Human Movement and Health, Manchester Metropolitan University, Hassall Road, Alsager, ST7 2HL, UK
- Research Institute MOVE, Faculty of Human Movement Sciences VU University Amsterdam, the Netherlands
- Hacettepe University, School of Sports Sciences and Technology, 06532 Beytepe, Ankara, Turkey
- University Medical Centre Nijmegen, Department of Physiology, Nijmegen, the Netherlands
| | - Şükran Nazan Koşar
- Institute for Biomedical Research into Human Movement and Health, Manchester Metropolitan University, Hassall Road, Alsager, ST7 2HL, UK
- Research Institute MOVE, Faculty of Human Movement Sciences VU University Amsterdam, the Netherlands
- Hacettepe University, School of Sports Sciences and Technology, 06532 Beytepe, Ankara, Turkey
- University Medical Centre Nijmegen, Department of Physiology, Nijmegen, the Netherlands
| | - Maria T.E. Hopman
- Institute for Biomedical Research into Human Movement and Health, Manchester Metropolitan University, Hassall Road, Alsager, ST7 2HL, UK
- Research Institute MOVE, Faculty of Human Movement Sciences VU University Amsterdam, the Netherlands
- Hacettepe University, School of Sports Sciences and Technology, 06532 Beytepe, Ankara, Turkey
- University Medical Centre Nijmegen, Department of Physiology, Nijmegen, the Netherlands
| | - Arnold de Haan
- Institute for Biomedical Research into Human Movement and Health, Manchester Metropolitan University, Hassall Road, Alsager, ST7 2HL, UK
- Research Institute MOVE, Faculty of Human Movement Sciences VU University Amsterdam, the Netherlands
- Hacettepe University, School of Sports Sciences and Technology, 06532 Beytepe, Ankara, Turkey
- University Medical Centre Nijmegen, Department of Physiology, Nijmegen, the Netherlands
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35
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Ichinose E, Kurose T, Daitoku D, Kawamata S. The skeletal muscle vascular supply closely correlates with the muscle fiber surface area in the rat. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2008; 71:45-57. [DOI: 10.1679/aohc.71.45] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Emiko Ichinose
- Department of Anatomy and Histology, Graduate School of Health Sciences, Hiroshima University
| | - Tomoyuki Kurose
- Department of Anatomy and Histology, Graduate School of Health Sciences, Hiroshima University
| | - Daisuke Daitoku
- Department of Anatomy and Histology, Graduate School of Health Sciences, Hiroshima University
| | - Seiichi Kawamata
- Department of Anatomy and Histology, Graduate School of Health Sciences, Hiroshima University
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36
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Cebasek V, Kubínová L, Janácek J, Ribaric S, Erzen I. Adaptation of muscle fibre types and capillary network to acute denervation and shortlasting reinnervation. Cell Tissue Res 2007; 330:279-89. [PMID: 17805577 DOI: 10.1007/s00441-007-0484-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/14/2007] [Accepted: 07/24/2007] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
We postulated that, in rat extensor digitorum longus muscle (EDL), the length of capillaries per fibre surface area (Lcap/Sfib) and per fibre volume (Lcap/Vfib) could reflect fibre-type transformations accompanied by changes in oxidative metabolic profile and selective fibre-type atrophy. We excised rat EDL muscle 2 weeks after the sciatic nerve was cut (acute denervation; DEDL) and 4 weeks after the nerve was crushed (early reinnervation; REDL) and characterised muscle fibre-type transformation by the expression of myosin heavy-chain isoforms and by succinate dehydrogenase (SDH) and nicotinoamide adenine dinucleotide-tetrazolium reductase (NADH-TR) reactions. The numerical percentage (N/N) and area percentage (A/A) of pure and hybrid fibres and their diameter were determined, as was the A/A of SDH- and NADH-TR-positive fibres. The length of capillaries per fibre length (Lcap/Lfib), Lcap/Sfib and Lcap/Vfib were estimated in REDL and Lcap/Vfib in DEDL. In DEDL, the type 2x and 2b fibres evidently atrophied, with the N/N of type 2x fibres being lower and that of hybrid fibres higher. In REDL, the N/N of hybrid fibres was even higher, consequent to a lower N/N of type 2b fibres; however, fibre diameters approached values of the control EDL. Compared with control EDL, denervated and reinnervated muscles exhibited a higher A/A of oxidative fibres. This is probably the result of fibre-type transformation and selective fibre atrophy. We conclude that capillary length does not change during acute denervation and early reinnervation. The obtained higher values of Lcap/Sfib and Lcap/Vfib are related to changes in muscle fibre cross-sectional area.
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MESH Headings
- Acute Disease
- Adaptation, Physiological/physiology
- Animals
- Capillaries/cytology
- Capillaries/physiology
- Cell Size
- Denervation
- Muscle Fibers, Fast-Twitch/cytology
- Muscle Fibers, Fast-Twitch/metabolism
- Muscle Fibers, Skeletal/cytology
- Muscle Fibers, Skeletal/metabolism
- Muscle, Skeletal/blood supply
- Muscle, Skeletal/innervation
- Muscle, Skeletal/physiopathology
- Myosin Heavy Chains/metabolism
- NAD/metabolism
- Neovascularization, Physiologic/physiology
- Nerve Regeneration/physiology
- Oxidative Phosphorylation
- Rats
- Rats, Wistar
- Sciatic Neuropathy/physiopathology
- Succinate Dehydrogenase/metabolism
- Time Factors
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Affiliation(s)
- Vita Cebasek
- Institute of Anatomy, Faculty of Medicine, University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana, 1000, Slovenia
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37
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Croley AN, Zwetsloot KA, Westerkamp LM, Ryan NA, Pendergast AM, Hickner RC, Pofahl WE, Gavin TP. Lower capillarization, VEGF protein, and VEGF mRNA response to acute exercise in the vastus lateralis muscle of aged vs. young women. J Appl Physiol (1985) 2005; 99:1872-9. [PMID: 16024519 DOI: 10.1152/japplphysiol.00498.2005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 75] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
In humans, the majority of studies demonstrate an age-associated reduction in the number of capillaries surrounding skeletal muscle fibers; however, recent reports in rats suggest that muscle capillarization is well maintained with advanced age. In sedentary and trained men, aging lowers the number of capillaries surrounding type II, but not type I, skeletal muscle fibers. The fiber type-specific effect of aging on muscle capillarization is unknown in women. Vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) is important in the basal maintenance of skeletal muscle capillarization, and lower VEGF expression is associated with increased age in nonskeletal muscle tissue of women. Compared with young women (YW), we hypothesized that aged women (AW) would demonstrate 1) lower muscle capillarization in a fiber type-specific manner and 2) lower VEGF and VEGF receptor expression at rest and in response to acute exercise. Nine sedentary AW (70 + 8 yr) and 11 YW (22 + 3 yr) had vastus lateralis muscle biopsies obtained before and at 4 h after a submaximal exercise bout for the measurement of morphometry and VEGF and VEGF receptor expression. In AW compared with YW, muscle capillary contacts were lower overall (YW: 2.36 + 0.32 capillaries; AW: 2.08 + 0.17 capillaries), specifically in type II (YW: 2.37 + 0.39 capillaries; AW: 1.91 + 0.36 capillaries) but not type I fibers (YW: 2.36 + 0.34 capillaries; AW: 2.26 + 0.24 capillaries). Muscle VEGF protein was 35% lower at rest, and the exercise-induced increase in VEGF mRNA was 50% lower in AW compared with YW. There was no effect of age on VEGF receptor expression. These results provide evidence that, in the vastus lateralis of women, 1) capillarization surrounding type II muscle fibers is lower in AW compared with YW and 2) resting VEGF protein and the VEGF mRNA response to exercise are lower in AW compared with YW.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrea N Croley
- Department of Exercise and Sport Science, East Carolina University, Greenville, NC 27858, USA
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38
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Kano Y, Shimegi S, Furukawa H, Matsudo H, Mizuta T. Effects of aging on capillary number and luminal size in rat soleus and plantaris muscles. J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci 2002; 57:B422-7. [PMID: 12456732 DOI: 10.1093/gerona/57.12.b422] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
To clarify aging-related changes in the capillary network in skeletal muscle, we morphometrically examined the capillary supply to individual muscle fibers and capillary luminal size in young (3-month-old) and old (19-month-old) male Wistar rats. All morphometric parameters for capillary and muscle fiber were determined in the cross sections of the perfusion-fixed soleus (SOL) and plantaris (PL) muscles. The range of fiber size was larger in the old muscles because of hypertrophy and atrophy of fibers. However, the capillary supply to individual muscle fibers, assessed as the mean of capillary contacts around a muscle fiber, did not change with aging in SOL muscle (young rats = 7.8 +/- 0.4 vs old rats = 8.1 +/- 0.8) or PL muscle (young rats = 6.4 +/- 0.3 vs old rats = 7.0 +/- 0.9). The ratio of individual muscle fiber area to the number of capillary contacts around a muscle fiber did not differ between young rats (SOL = 361.7 +/- 76.0; PL = 264.7 +/- 20.9) and old rats (SOL = 350.2 +/- 61.3; PL = 296.8 +/- 44.9). The mean capillary luminal diameter did not differ statistically in young and old rats (SOL, young rats = 5.3 +/- 0.5 vs old rats = 5.1 +/- 0.1; PL, young rats = 5.0 +/- 0.3 vs old rats = 5.4 +/- 0.2). In conclusion, the relationship between capillary supply and muscle fiber size is similar for both young and old rats, and the luminal size of each capillary was maintained with advancing age.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yutaka Kano
- Department of Applied Physics & Chemistry, University of Electro-Communications, Tokyo, Japan.
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39
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Rodríguez LP, López-Rego J, Calbet JAL, Valero R, Varela E, Ponce J. Effects of training status on fibers of the musculus vastus lateralis in professional road cyclists. Am J Phys Med Rehabil 2002; 81:651-60. [PMID: 12172517 DOI: 10.1097/00002060-200209000-00004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To evaluate possible changes occurring in muscle fibers related to the training status of professional road cyclists. DESIGN A comparative study was performed on two groups of male road cyclists: ten 21-yr-old cyclists with a history of 3 yr of sport competition (RC21) and ten 25-yr-old cyclists with a history of 7 yr of competition (RC25). The control group was formed by two subgroups of five nontrained, sedentary volunteers who were matched for age with the study subjects (NT21 and NT25). Biopsies of the vastus lateralis muscle were obtained to determine the fiber variables: percentage, cross-sectional area, mitochondrial volume, and capillary density. RESULTS Control group variables were within the normal range. According to their training status, cyclists showed an increased percentage of type I and IIC fibers (RC25 > RC21 > NT) and decreased percentage of type IIA (RC25 < RC21 < NT) and IIB fibers (RC25 = RC21 < NT), an increased cross-sectional area of all fiber types after 3 yr of training (RC25 = RC21 > NT) except IIB fibers (RC25 > RC21), an increased mitochondrial volume in all fiber types (RC25 > RC21 > NT) except type IIA fibers (RC25 > RC21 = NT21), and an increased capillary density (RC25 > RC21 > NT). CONCLUSIONS Findings indicate a progressive increase in the muscle fiber types that are mostly implicated in endurance sports, accompanied by phenotypic changes in the fiber population of lesser participation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luis P Rodríguez
- Departamento de Medicina Física y de Rehabilitación, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad Complutense de Madrid, Madrid, Spain
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40
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Egginton S. Temperature and angiogenesis: the possible role of mechanical factors in capillary growth. Comp Biochem Physiol A Mol Integr Physiol 2002; 132:773-87. [PMID: 12095862 DOI: 10.1016/s1095-6433(02)00047-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
This review examines the effect of prolonged cold exposure on muscle capillary supply in mammals and fishes. In rats and hamsters, the response to a simulated onset of winter is to conserve the microcirculation and maintain a constant capillary to fibre ratio (C:F), implying either an unaltered vacular bed or angiogenesis matched by muscle hyperplasia, while chronic acclimation to low environmental temperature induces a variable degree of muscle atrophy, which in turn increases capillary density (CD). In striped bass and rainbow trout, cold-induced angiogenesis results in an increase in C:F, but also a cold-induced fibre hypertrophy that is accompanied by a powerful angiogenic response such that CD is much less sensitive to changes in fibre size. Endothelial cells can act as mechanotransducers such that angiogenesis may be initiated by changes in their physical environment. It is hypothesised that in mammals, the metabolic consequences of cold exposure increases the luminal shear stress, while in fishes the stimulus for angiogenesis is abluminal stretch following an increase in fibre size.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stuart Egginton
- Angiogenesis Research Group, Department of Physiology, University of Birmingham, UK.
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Deveci D, Marshall JM, Egginton S. Relationship between capillary angiogenesis, fiber type, and fiber size in chronic systemic hypoxia. Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol 2001; 281:H241-52. [PMID: 11406491 DOI: 10.1152/ajpheart.2001.281.1.h241] [Citation(s) in RCA: 76] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Whether chronic hypoxia causes angiogenesis in skeletal muscle is controversial. Male Wistar rats, 5--6 wk of age, were kept at constant 12% O(2) for 3 wk, and frozen sections of their postural soleus (SOL), phasic extensor digitorum longus (EDL), and tibialis anterior (TA) muscles were compared with those of normoxic controls. Capillary supply increased in SOL muscles [capillary-to-fiber ratio (C/F) = 2.55 +/- 0.09 hypoxia vs. 2.17 +/- 0.06 normoxia; capillary density (CD) = 942 +/- 14 hypoxia vs. 832 +/- 20 mm(-2) normoxia, P < 0.01] but not in EDL muscles (C/F = 1.44 +/- 0.04 hypoxia vs. 1.42 +/- 0.04 normoxia; CD = 876 +/- 52 hypoxia vs. 896 +/- 24 mm(-2) normoxia). The predominantly glycolytic cortex of TA muscles showed higher C/F after hypoxia (1.79 +/- 0.09 vs. 1.53 +/- 0.05 normoxia, P < 0.05), whereas the mainly oxidative TA core with smaller fibers showed no change in capillarity. The region of the SOL muscle with large-sized (mean fiber area 2,843 +/- 128 microm(2)) oxidative fibers (90% type I) had a higher C/F (by 30%) and CD (by 25%), whereas there was no angiogenesis in the region with sparse (76%) and smaller-sized (2,200 +/- 85 microm(2)) type I fibers. Thus systemic hypoxia differentially induces angiogenesis between and within hindlimb skeletal muscles, with fiber size contributing either directly (via a metabolic stimulus) or indirectly (via a mechanical stimulus) to the process.
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Affiliation(s)
- D Deveci
- Cumhuriyet University School of Medicine, 58140 Sivas, Turkey
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Abstract
The purpose of this study was to examine whether a single biopsy sample of vastus lateralis could provide an accurate estimate of capillary density (CD) which is indicative of the entire muscle, or whether capillary density is distributed unevenly and varies with muscle depth. Whole muscle cross sections of vastus lateralis were excised post mortem (n=11) for analysis of capillary density at three muscle depths, (superficial, mid and deep regions). Muscle thickness varied widely (17-79 mm) across subjects. The distribution of CD throughout the depth of the muscle was homogeneous in 8 subjects, but in 3 subjects it was heterogeneous (p<0.05). In 3 of these subjects there was a significant (p<0.05) effect of sample depth on CD. These data indicate that tissue from a single biopsy will not adequately represent the CD of the entire vastus lateralis in some individuals. Single biopsies from unspecified muscle depth, have routinely been used to estimate CD and fibre type in vastus lateralis. The present study indicates that a more reliable method of analysis would be to use the tissue from two needle biopsies taken at the superficial and deep portions of the muscle from a group of at least 10 subjects. Sampling theory analysis supported this conclusion.
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Affiliation(s)
- D Dwyer
- School of Health Science, Griffith University-Gold Coast Queensland, Australia
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