Can You Have Your Vigorous Exercise and Enjoy It Too? Ramping Intensity Down Increases Postexercise, Remembered, and Forecasted Pleasure

The effects of affect-guided interval training on pleasure, enjoyment, and autonomy: A registered report

This registered report tested the effects of a novel exercise protocol, namely affect-guided interval training, on motivationally relevant variables of remembered pleasure, forecasted pleasure, enjoyment, and autonomy. Affect-guided interval training (AIT) consisted of 60-s intervals that alternated between the highest pleasant intensity and lowest pleasant intensity for 20 min; this was intended to minimize the potential displeasure of traditional high-intensity interval training. The novel protocol was compared to self-selected exercise intensity (30 min) and high-intensity interval training (60-s intervals for 20 min). All sessions were, on average, vigorous in intensity (80-89% peak heart rate). Data indicate that the AIT session was experienced as the most pleasant, had the most pleasant slope of affect, was remembered as the most pleasant, resulted in the most positive affective forecasts, and was the most enjoyable. Both the affect-guided interval session and self-selected exercise session resulted in greater autonomy than high-intensity interval training. Several evaluative and motivationally relevant variables, including (a) remembered pleasure, (b) enjoyment, and (c) forecasted pleasure were predicted by (a) experienced pleasure, the (b) pleasure experienced at the end of exercise, and (c) the slope of pleasure experienced throughout the exercise session. Overall, this study suggests that affect-guided interval training is a feasible and positive alternative that can be included as a viable option for exercise programming.

Examining the effects of increasing then decreasing exercise intensity within a session of aerobic exercise

Recent studies have examined the relations between the slope of pleasure experienced during exercise and remembered pleasure, forecasted pleasure, and enjoyment.

OBJECTIVES

This study advances this line of research by examining the effects of exposing participants to exercise that increases in intensity and then decreases in intensity.

METHODS

In a within-subjects design, participants completed three exercise sessions matched for total and average work. One session steadily increased in intensity, another steadily decreased in intensity, and a third increased-then-decreased in intensity. Remembered pleasure, forecasted pleasure, and exercise enjoyment served as primary outcome variables.

RESULTS

Remembered pleasure, forecasted pleasure, and enjoyment did not differ between conditions. Remembered pleasure was positively associated with mean experienced pleasure, the overall slope of pleasure during the exercise session, affect experienced at the end of exercise, forecasted pleasure, accomplishment, and enjoyment.

CONCLUSIONS

These data add to a growing literature on the effects of patterns of exercise intensity on affective responses to exercise. The results are discussed in context of previous and more recent research.

Beyond Rubik: The Embodiment-Presence-Interactivity Cube Applied to Exercise

Evidence-based interventions are needed to promote engagement in physical activity. Audio-visual stimuli are frequently employed to enhance the exercise experience. Nonetheless, there is a paucity of research that examines the qualities of technological devices that are employed. Using the Embodiment-Presence-Interactivity Cube (Flavián et al., 2019) as a guiding conceptual framework, the aim of this registered report was to examine how each dimension of the cube (i.e., embodiment, presence and interactivity) influenced a range of exercise-related affective and perceptual variables. A counterbalanced within-subjects design was employed (N = 24). Participants completed 20-min exercise bouts on a cycle ergometer under four conditions: Television, augmented reality, 360° video and virtual reality. A repeated-measures ANOVA indicated a significant Condition × Timepoint interaction for affective valence (p = .046), with greater embodiment offered by technological devices leading to more positive responses. Analyses also indicated main effects of condition for exercise enjoyment, remembered pleasure and forecasted pleasure, with greater presence of technological devices leading to more positive responses. Technologies that combine high levels of embodiment, presence and interactivity (e.g., virtual reality) appear to yield several benefits in terms of in-task (e.g., affective valence) and post-task (e.g., remembered pleasure) responses for exercise conducted at ventilatory threshold.

The Influence of Behavioral Sciences on Adherence to Physical Activity and Weight Loss in Overweight and Obese Patients: A Systematic Review of Randomized Controlled Trials

In recent years, weight gain and reduced physical activity in the general population have contributed to the development of obesity and other health problems; on the other hand, studies in behavioral sciences have been used to modify behaviors for a healthier life, so the objective of this study was to identify the evidence of interventions in behavioral sciences on adherence to physical activity and weight loss in obese patients. This systematic review study is based on a search of the electronic databases PubMed, Web of Science, Scopus, and Cochrane. Studies assessed the evidence from intervention studies that assessed the influence of intervention studies of behavioral sciences on public health. The articles were published between 2013 and 2023. The systematic search of the databases identified 2951 articles. The review analyzed 10 studies. Behavioral science interventions presented evidence through strategies such as multicomponent interventions, lottery and financial incentives, message framing, message framing with financial incentive and physical activity, and psychological satisfaction, demonstrating results in weight loss and maintenance and increased physical activity. This study presents scientific evidence through healthy behavior change methodologies, and future studies can explore these strategies in conjunction with public health technologies in the search for public-private partnerships to promote physical activity in adults.

Balancing Time for Health Behaviors: Associations of Time Perspective With Physical Activity and Weight Management in Older Adults

PURPOSE

To examine associations between time perspective and health promotion behaviors of physical activity and weight management.

DESIGN

Quantitative cross-sectional.

SETTING

This study is part of the Betula project on aging, memory, and dementia in Northern Sweden.

SUBJECTS

417 older adults aged between 55 and 85 years.

MEASURES

Swedish-Zimbardo Time Perspective Inventory; Physical Activity in the past year, past week, and in comparison with others of similar age; Weight Management = Body Mass Index (BMI; kg/m2).

RESULTS

After controlling for age, sex, and years of education, hierarchical linear regression indicated a Balanced Time Perspective was significantly associated with more physical activity in the past year (P = .04), the past week (P < .001), and in comparison with others (P < .01). Past Negative time perspective was associated with less physical activity in the past year (P = .03), and in comparison with others (P = .03). Present Fatalistic was associated with less physical activity during the past week (P = .03), and in comparison with others (P = .01). Present Hedonistic was associated with more physical activity the past week (P = .03), and in comparison with others (P = .03). Past Negative was associated with higher BMI (P = .02), and Future Negative were associated with lower BMI (P = .01). Taken collectively, greater positivity and flexibility across time perspectives was associated with more physical activity, whereas negative oriented time perspectives related with less physical activity and poorer weight management.

CONCLUSION

Time perspective can be associated with health behaviors in older adults and have implications for health across the lifespan. Health promotion interventions may target older adults' enjoyment of exercise and weight management in the present, rather than highlight potential negative health outcomes in the future.

Unpacking differences in post-exercise affective experiences between physically underactive and active individuals

BACKGROUND

Affective response to exercise (i.e., how individuals feel during- and post-exercise) as well as post-behavioral evaluations of affective experiences with exercise (i.e., reflecting on the experience after engaging in exercise) may be important determinants of regular exercise.

PURPOSE

We compared post-exercise affective response and post-behavioral evaluations of exercise between a physically active and underactive group. Physically active (n = 32) and underactive (n = 25) participants completed a 10-minute treadmill bout of vigorous exercise and reported affective valence, positive activated affect, negative activated affect, calmness, fatigue and relief at various points during and/or after the bout.

RESULTS

As expected, both groups reported an improvement in affective valence immediately post-exercise (ps < 0.001). This improvement in affective valence was associated with a concurrent decrease in negative affect (ps < 0.05) for the physically underactive group and was only associated with a concurrent increase in positive affect (ps < 0.02) for the active group. There were significant differences between physically active and underactive groups in pre-post exercise changes in positive activated affect (ps < 0.005). The underactive group reported greater relief than the active group at all-post exercise time-points (ps < 0.05).

CONCLUSIONS

These findings have implications for understanding post-exercise affective response and post-behavioral evaluations of exercise and for interventions directed at influencing the post-exercise affective response and behavioral evaluations of exercise in physically underactive individuals.

Analysing experienced and inexperienced cyclists' attentional focus and self-regulatory strategies during varying intensities of fixed perceived effort cycling: A mixed method study

Using a think aloud approach during fixed perceived effort exercise is a unique method to explore the decision-making processes that guide the self-regulation of perceived effort during endurance-based activity. In a two-part study, authors investigated the attentional focus and self-regulatory strategies associated with: Part A - perceived effort corresponding to (RPEGET) and above gas exchange threshold (RPE+15%GET); Part B - between experienced and inexperienced cyclists during fixed perceived effort cycling tasks. Eighteen (15 male, 3 female) healthy, active individuals completed three visits (visit 1 - ramped incremental test and familiarisation, visit 2 and 3-30-min fixed perceived effort cycling). During which, power output, heart rate, lactate, think aloud, and perceptual markers were taken. Random-intercepts linear mixed-effects models assessed the condition, time, and condition × time interactions on all dependent variables. Power output, heart rate, lactate and instances of internal sensory monitoring (t195=2.57,p=.011,β=0.95[0.23,1.68]) and self-regulation (t195=4.14,p=.001,β=1.69[0.89,2.49]) were significantly higher in the RPE+15%GET versus RPEGET trial. No significant differences between inexperienced and experienced cyclists for internal sensory monitoring (t196=-1.78,p=.095,β=-1.73[-3.64,0.18]) or self-regulatory thoughts (t196=-0.39,p=.699,β=-1.06[-6.32,4.21]) were noted but there were significant condition × time interactions for internal monitoring (t196=2.02,p=.045,β=0.44[0.01,0.87]) and self-regulation (t196=3.45,p=.001,β=0.85[0.37,1.33]). Seemingly, experienced athletes associatively attended to internal psychophysiological state and subsequently self-regulate their psychophysiological state at earlier stages of exercise than inexperienced athletes. This is the first study to exhibit the differences in attentional focus and self-regulatory strategies that are activated based on perceived effort intensity and experience level in cyclists.

Effects of tempo of self-selected music on isokinetic strength performance and psychological outcomes

Substantial research has supported using musical stimuli as an ergogenic aid before and during various forms of exercise. Researchers have demonstrated that music shifts attention from associative to dissociative, decreases perceived effort and discomfort, and increases arousal and pleasantness in longer-duration, low-to-moderate-intensity exercises. Strength training is shorter in duration and higher in intensity than aerobic or muscular endurance training. Limited research has examined the effects of music on strength performance and psychological outcomes. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of the tempo of self-selected music on isokinetic knee extension and flexion performance, effort, discomfort, attention, arousal, and pleasantness in resistance-trained young adults. Thirty resistance-trained college-aged adults completed three exercise testing sessions. In a randomized, counterbalanced order, a repeated measures design was used to expose the participants to three conditions (fast music, slow music, and no music). The Biodex isokinetic dynamometer and standardized psychological Likert-style scales were used to measure concentric maximum effort knee extension and flexion torque at 60°/s and psychological variables, respectively. This study found that music improves knee extension torque but not knee flexion in resistance-trained young adults. In addition, music or the tempo of music did not influence any psychological outcomes during isokinetic strength testing. Therefore, listening to music is not detrimental to performance or psychological outcomes, but this study provides minimal support for music's use as an ergogenic aid during strengthening exercise.

Affective responses to stretching exercises: Exploring the timing of assessments

Affective responses during exercise have been identified as a predictor of exercise adherence. However, research has been mostly limited to aerobic and resistance exercise. Considering that stretching activities are also an important component of physical fitness, this quasi-experimental study was designed to: 1) compare affective responses during and immediately after stretching exercises in apparently healthy adults, and 2) assess the consistency and repeatability of affect ratings obtained one week apart. For this purpose, we analyzed the Feeling Scale (FS) and Felt Arousal Scale (FAS) ratings using Time (during and after stretching) x Intensity (light, moderate, vigorous) x Stretched Muscle Group (quadriceps, hamstrings, glutes, latissimus dorsi, triceps) with repeated measures analysis of variance (ANCOVA) in 34 participants (21 males; aged 32.8 ± 8.6 years). The repeatability of FS and FAS ratings was assessed using two-way random-effects models, Intraclass Correlation Coefficients (ICC), and Bland-Altman plots. FS scores were higher following the stretching exercises, whereas FAS scores were lower, particularly in the vigorous intensity. In general, the inter-day repeatability for FS and FAS measurements was good across muscle groups. ICC tended to be higher at vigorous intensities. Ratings of core affect can be collected during static passive stretches using the FAS and FAS in ecologically valid settings. These results suggest that an adequate assessment of core affective responses to stretching activities should be performed during the exercises.

Chronic high-intensity interval training and moderate-intensity continuous training are both effective in increasing maximum fat oxidation during exercise in overweight and obese adults: A meta-analysis

Objective

to (1) systematically review the chronic effect of high-intensity interval training (HIIT) and moderate-intensity continuous training (MICT) on maximal fat oxidation (MFO) in overweight and obese adults, and (2) explore MFO influencing factors and its dose-response relationships with HIIT and MICT.

Methods

Studies using a between-group design involving overweight and obese adults and assessing the effect of HIIT and MICT on MFO were included. A meta-analysis on MFO indices was conducted, and the observed heterogeneities were explored through subgroup, regression, and sensitivity analyses.

Results

Thirteen studies of moderate to high quality with a total of 519 overweight and obese subjects were included in this meta-analysis (HIIT, n = 136; MICT, n = 235; Control, n = 148). HIIT displayed a statistically significant favorable effect on MFO compared to no-training (MD = 0.07; 95%CI [0.03 to 0.11]; I2 = 0%). Likewise, MICT displayed a statistically significant favorable effect on MFO compared to no-training (MD = 0.10; 95%CI [0.06 to 0.15]; I2 = 95%). Subgroup and regression analyses revealed that exercise intensity (Fatmax vs. non-Fatmax; %VO2peak), exercise mode, BMI, and VO2peak all significantly moderated MICT on MFO. When analyzing studies that have directly compared HIIT and MCIT in obese people, it seems there is no difference in the MFO change (MD = 0.01; 95%CI [-0.02 to 0.04]; I2 = 64%). No publication bias was found in any of the above meta-analyses (Egger's test p > 0.05 for all).

Conclusion

Both HIIT and MICT are effective in improving MFO in overweight and obese adults, and they have similar effects. MCIT with an intensity of 65-70% VO2peak, performed 3 times per week for 60 min per session, will optimize MFO increases in overweight and obese adults. Given the lack of studies examining the effect of HIIT on MFO in overweight and obese adults and the great diversity in the training protocols in the existing studies, we were unable to make sound recommendations for training.

A systematic narrative review of extrinsic strategies to improve affective responses to exercise

Background

Extrinsic strategies affect the exercise experience but fall outside the frequency, intensity, time, and type (i.e., dose-determining) principles. To our knowledge, no systematic review has focused on extrinsic strategies to influence the affective responses to exercise. The objective was to identify extrinsic strategies that seek to influence affective responses during exercise and other motivationally relevant variables including post-exercise momentary affective valence, remembered and forecasted pleasure, and enjoyment.

Methods

For inclusion, eligible articles reported peer-reviewed original research, used acute bouts of exercise, and used a dimensional approach for measuring affective responses or measured enjoyment post-exercise. Web of Science, PubMed, and PsychINFO databases were last searched on 10th September 2021. Quality assessment was completed following the Effective Public Health Practice Project approach. Results were presented using a narrative synthesis.

Results

125 studies were included with sample descriptions, study design (extrinsic strategies, mode, type, intensity, and duration), measurement details, and results summarised for each study.

Conclusions

71% of studies were categorised as Weak according to the quality assessment tool with sampling practices (self-referred participants) and poor reporting of participant withdrawals/drop-outs the predominant reasons for Weak ratings. A wide variety of extrinsic strategies were reported with music, music videos, immersive virtual reality, outdoor exercise, caffeine, high-to-low pattern of exercise intensity, self-selected exercise intensity, and manipulation of self-efficacy offering promise as suitable strategies to positively change how people feel during exercise.

Systematic Review Registration

https://osf.io/jbh8v/.

Predictors of Long-Term Exercise Engagement in Patients With Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder: The Role of Physical Activity Enjoyment

Most U.S. adults, even more so those with psychiatric conditions like obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD), do not engage in the recommended amount of physical activity (PA), despite the wide array of physical and mental health benefits associated with exercise. Therefore, it is essential to identify mechanistic factors that drive long-term exercise engagement so they can be targeted. Using the science of behavior change (SOBC) framework, this study examined potential predictors of long-term exercise engagement as a first step towards identifying modifiable mechanisms, in individuals with OCD, such as PA enjoyment, positive or negative affect, and behavioral activation. Fifty-six low-active patients (mean age = 38.8 ± 13.0, 64% female) with a primary diagnosis of OCD were randomized to either aerobic exercise (AE; n = 28) or health education (HE; n = 28), and completed measures of exercise engagement, PA enjoyment, behavioral activation, and positive and negative affect at baseline, postintervention, and 3-, 6-, and 12-month follow-up. Significant predictors of long-term exercise engagement up to 6-months postintervention were baseline PA (Estimate = 0.29, 95%CI [0.09, 0.49], p = .005) and higher baseline PA enjoyment (Estimate = 1.09, 95%CI [0.30, 1.89], p = .008). Change in PA enjoyment from baseline to postintervention was greater in AE vs. HE, t(44) = -2.06, p = .046, d = -0.61, but endpoint PA enjoyment did not predict follow-up exercise engagement above and beyond baseline PA enjoyment. Other hypothesized potential mechanisms (baseline affect or behavioral activation) did not significantly predict exercise engagement. Results suggest that PA enjoyment may be an important modifiable target mechanism for intervention, even prior to a formal exercise intervention. Next steps aligned with the SOBC framework are discussed, including examining intervention strategies to target PA enjoyment, particularly among individuals with OCD or other psychiatric conditions, who may benefit most from long-term exercise engagement's effects on physical and mental health.

Exploring the impact of individualized pleasure-oriented exercise sessions in a health club setting: Protocol for a randomized controlled trial

Research on the relationship between exercise-induced affect and exercise or physical activity behavior has gained momentum in recent years, yielding several observational and longitudinal studies. However, experimental tests demonstrating a causal role of affective responses on exercise adherence are lacking. Given the need to devise exercise prescriptions that can facilitate adherence and promote regular physical activity, a Randomized Controlled Trial targeting individual pleasurable responses in a health-club setting will be conducted. The experimental protocol will compare two individualized evaluation, prescription, and supervision methods, adjusted for intensity, with the aim to explore their impact on behavioral, affective, and motivational outcomes. The planned study will be a pragmatic randomized, single-blinded, controlled superiority trial with two parallel groups and an allocation ratio of 1:1. Apparently healthy volunteer participants (N = 46) between 18 and 45 years old, who are not regularly active, will be randomly allocated to a control or experimental group. The control group will follow a general American College of Sports Medicine exercise prescription; the experimental group will follow the same prescription but with enhancements aimed at promoting pleasure: (1) individualization based on individual differences in preference for and tolerance of exercise intensity; (2) self-regulation of intensity; and (3) repeated assessments of core affect. The primary outcome will be post-intervention exercise-session attendance. Affective and motivational variables will be examined as secondary outcomes. The results are expected to advance exercise prescriptions by promoting affective regulation, thus helping to improve exercise adherence and related outcomes. TRIAL REGISTRATION: ClinicalTrials.gov; ID: NCT05416593.

Differences in the prefrontal cortex responses of healthy young men performing either water-based or land-based exercise at light to moderate intensity

Cerebral blood flow increases more during water-based exercise than land-based exercise owing to the effects of end-tidal CO₂ (PETCO₂) and mean arterial pressure (MAP) changes due to water immersion. However, it is unclear whether oxygenated hemoglobin (oxy-Hb) concentrations in the prefrontal cortex (PFC) are increased more by water-based or land-based exercise. We hypothesized that oxy-Hb concentrations in the PFC are higher during water-based exercise than land-based exercise when the exercise intensity is matched. To test this hypothesis, 10 healthy participants (age: 24.2 ± 1.7 years; height: 1.75 ± 0.04 m; weight: 69.5 ± 5.2 kg) performed light- to moderate-intensity cycling exercise in water (water-based cycling (WC); chest-high water at 30 °C) and on land (LC). Stroke volume, cardio output, heart rate, MAP, respiratory rate, PETCO₂, and oxy-Hb in the PFC were assessed during 15 min of exercise, with exercise intensity increased every 5 min. Both WC and LC significantly increased oxy-Hb concentrations in the PFC as exercise intensity was increased (intensity effect: p < 0.001). There was no significant difference in oxy-Hb concentrations during WC and LC in most prefrontal areas, although significant differences were found in areas corresponding to the left dorsolateral PFC (exercise effect: p < 0.001). Thus, WC and LC increase oxy-Hb concentrations in the PFC in a similar manner with increasing exercise intensity, but part of the PFC exhibits enhanced oxy-Hb levels during WC. The neural response of the PFC may differ during water-based and land-based exercise owing to differences in external information associated with water immersion.

Assessing Affective Valence and Activation in Stretching Activities with the Feeling Scale and the Felt Arousal Scale: A Systematic Review

Affective responses have been considered key determinants for exercise adherence, but research on affective responses to stretching activities is scarce. Given the role of these responses in exercise adherence, our aim in this review was to explore (a) the utility and feasibility of core affect in stretching-related activities as measured by the Feeling Scale (FS) and/or the Felt Arousal Scale (FAS); (b) the timing of administering these scales; and (c) the scales' applicability and interpretability in this context. Inclusion criteria for studies in this review were experimental and non-experimental studies written in English that based affect assessment on the FS and/or FAS and that applied these scales to participants engaged in physical activity, individually or in groups. We also considered studies that focused on stretching activities that were either isolated or components of a class/activity and studies that used healthy participants of any age. Exclusion criteria were populations with mental health problems, cancer, diabetes, hypertension, cardiovascular disease, or diseases likely to alter pain perception or be associated with chronic pain, instrument validation studies, gray literature, and systematic reviews. We searched PubMed, SPORTDiscus and PsycINFO databases, and we added studies retrieved manually from reference sections while following PRISMA guidelines. We used the Effective Public Health Practice Project tool for judging methodological quality of research articles. Our final analyses were based on 12 empirical studies published between 2003 and 2021with a total of 718 participants. Both scales were found to be useful and feasible in the most usual places for exercise, but core affect results cannot be properly interpreted due to variability of study protocols and the absence of guidelines for adequate baseline assessment. Most studies recorded affect responses pre-session, during session, and post-session. We observed no standardized timing or frequency of assessment, and there was high heterogeneity among stretching protocols. Currently, research in core affect assessment of stretching-related activities lacks sufficient methodological quality to draw generalizable conclusions.

Can acute exercise be more pleasant? Using audiovisual stimuli: A meta-analysis

This meta-analytic study aimed to examine the effects of audiovisual stimuli on affective responses during and after exercise and their moderators. A total of 296 effect sizes (Hedge's g) were extracted from 46 independent studies covering 1292 participants. Meta-analysis was performed using Comprehensive Meta-Analysis Version 3.3, and potential moderating variables were analysed using univariate meta-regression models. Audiovisual stimuli increased affective valence during (g = 0.793, 95% CI [0.666, 0.920]) and after exercise (g = 0.792, 95% CI [0.567, 1.016]), and arousal during (g = 0.920, 95% CI [0.742 1.097]) and after exercise (g = 0.666, 95% CI [0.390, 0.962]). There may be publication bias in the meta-analysis, but the main findings are still valid. The type of audiovisual stimuli (audio-video > audio or video), exercise habits (active > not reported), and exercise intensities (self-selected > imposed) moderated the effects. In conclusion, the application of audiovisual stimuli during exercise can elicit positive affective responses. These results provide a viable intervention strategy for exercise and health practitioners to reduce the number of physically inactive individuals and improve exercise compliance and adherence.

Body composition and physical fitness improve after 8 weeks of high-intensity circuit training using body weight in obese women

BACKGROUND

We examined the effects of an 8-week modified high-intensity circuit training using body weight as resistance (HICT^BW) on health-related physical fitness in sedentary obese women.

METHODS

Twenty-four sedentary obese women were allocated into the HICT^BW or a non-training control group (CG). The modified HICT^BW was performed for eight weeks (three times per week). Training consisted of a 30-second workout and 10-second rest for 12 exercise poses per one circuit (one circuit in the first week), with an increase of one circuit every two weeks. Body weight and body composition included skeletal muscle mass (SMM), body fat mass (BFM), body fat percentage (BF%), visceral fat area (VFA), and skeletal muscle mass to visceral fat area ratio (MFR) were measured. Physical fitness included flexibility of the lower back and hamstrings (Flex<inf>LH</inf>), and leg and handgrip muscle strength (Strength<inf>Leg</inf>, Strength<inf>HG</inf>). Cardiovascular endurance included the Åstrand-Rhyming heart rate (HR<inf>Åstrand</inf>), relative maximum oxygen uptake (relative V̇O<inf>2max</inf>), and workload.

RESULTS

All variables were obtained at baseline, week 4, and week 8. The HICT^BW improved Flex<inf>LH</inf>, Strength<inf>Leg</inf>, and relative V̇O<inf>2max</inf> from baseline to week 4 (All P<0.05). Improvements from baseline to week 8 were observed for SMM, BFM, BF%, VFA and MFR, Flex<inf>LH</inf>, Strength<inf>Leg</inf>, HR<inf>Åstrand</inf>, relative V̇O<inf>2max</inf>, and workload (All P<0.05). Furthermore, the HICT^BW elicited a higher change in SMM (+2.9%), BFM (-3.4%), BF% (-3.2%), MFR (+9.5%), Flex<inf>LH</inf> (+145.7%) and relative V̇O<inf>2max</inf> (+32.3%) than the CG at week-8 (All P<0.05).

CONCLUSIONS

An eight-week modified HICT^BW program thrice a week is an effective training modality to influence health-related physical fitness in sedentary obese women.

The Effect of Aerobic Fitness on Psychological, Attentional and Physiological Responses during a Tabata High-Intensity Interval Training Session in Healthy Young Women

The current study examines the effects of a Tabata high-intensity interval training (HIIT) session on affective, cognitive and physiological indicators in women of different fitness levels. A total of 28 adult women (aged 24.2 ± 1.5 years) completed a 20 m shuttle run test and were then assigned to higher fitness and lower fitness groups (HF and LF, n = 14 each) according to their predicted aerobic power. On a separate occasion, participants completed a 30 min Tabata workout (six 4 min rounds separated by 1 min passive rest). Each round included eight exercises (20 s exercise and 10 s rest). Affective, physiological and cognitive responses were assessed prior to, during and after the protocol. Heart rate and blood lactate concentration increased similarly in both groups over time throughout the workout (p < 0.001). Total Mood Disturbance was higher for LF (111.4 ± 15.7) vs. HF (102.9 ± 11.7) (p = 0.48), vigor showed a level by time interaction of p = 0.006 and Activation−Deactivation Adjective Check List factors deteriorated over time (p < 0.001). The Concentration Grid Test was better overall for HF (10.5 ± 3.6) vs. LF (8.6 ± 3.6) (p = 0.05). The Feeling Scale and Rating of Perceived Exertion worsened similarly in both groups over time (p = 0.002 and p < 0.001, respectively). Positive and negative affect and arousal did not differ between groups or change over time (p > 0.05). These results show that, despite the different levels of aerobic fitness, physiological, metabolic, perceptual and affective responses were similar in the two groups of women during a 30 min Tabata session. This may imply that affective responses during this type of HIIT are independent of aerobic fitness.

Longitudinal affective response to high-intensity interval training and moderate-intensity continuous training in overweight women with polycystic ovary syndrome: A randomised trial

BACKGROUND

Women with polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) experience general and PCOS-specific barriers that limit their engagement with exercise and contribute to high attrition from exercise programs, hindering the potential benefits of exercise to address their increased cardio-metabolic risk. A positive remembered affective response can predict future intentions and adherence to exercise prescription.

OBJECTIVES

To compare the longitudinal changes in remembered affect to high-intensity interval training (HIIT) and moderate-intensity continuous training (MICT) in women with PCOS and to determine whether longitudinal changes in remembered affect are correlated with changes in fitness, body mass index, adherence and exercise enjoyment.

METHODS

Physically inactive, overweight women with PCOS were randomly assigned to 12 weeks of either HIIT (n = 15) or MICT (n = 14) (3 sessions per week). Remembered affective valence (Feeling Scale) was collected after each exercise session. Cardiorespiratory fitness (VO2peak) was assessed at baseline and post-intervention. Exercise enjoyment was assessed post-intervention.

RESULTS

The longitudinal changes in the remembered affect were more positive in the HIIT group compared to MICT (β = 0.017, p = 0.047). HIIT was also considered more enjoyable than MICT (p = 0.002). Adherence was high in both groups (>90%). We found a moderate correlation with longitudinal changes between the remembered affect and change in fitness (rs = 0.398) and exercise enjoyment (rs = 0.376) using the combined group, however, these were not statistically significant (p = 0.054 and p = 0.064, respectively).

CONCLUSIONS

HIIT demonstrated a more positive longitudinal remembered affective response and greater exercise enjoyment compared to MICT in overweight women with PCOS.

Experiencing good results promotes positive feelings to high-intensity exercise among young adults: A qualitative study

Introduction

From a public health perspective, it is important to gain more insight into how people can be motivated to maintain effective exercise routines. It is a common belief that moderate-intensity exercise is more pleasant and enjoyable than high-intensity training. This study aims to provide insight into (1) participants' expectations and preferences for training intensity prior to training, (2) how longer-term participation affect participants' experience of endurance training with continuous moderate-intensity training and high-intensity interval training.

Materials and methods

A total of 22 participants (14 women and eight men) between the ages of 21–30 volunteered for participation. Participants were randomized and divided into two equal groups. A total of 17 participants, nine women and eight men, completed the study. One group did moderate-intensity longer-lasting training and the other did high-intensity interval training. All participants completed three training sessions per week for 8 weeks. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with each participant before and after completing the training intervention. Data was analyzed using thematic analysis. This study is a part of a larger study evaluating and comparing the effects on endurance capacity of high-intensity interval training and moderate-intensity training. Physiological data are previously published.

Results

The results describe participants expectations prior to training, and how they experienced the actual training. The overall experience of training comprises several factors that work together. Both expectations and actual experiences (e.g., of physical pleasantness or unpleasantness, of positive or negative emotions, and of actual results from the training) contribute to the participants' overall experience of exercise.

Conclusion

The major finding is that improved physical fitness was a stronger motivator than feelings of pleasantness. Experiencing good results seemed to downplay feelings of unpleasantness and reinforce positive feelings toward exercise. Lack of results reinforce negative feelings toward exercise. Participants reported high-intensity exercise as more unpleasant and exhaustive, but the interval training group were more satisfied and experienced the training as more motivating.

Exploring Determinants of Exercise-Related Affective Valence in Regular Exercisers Between the Ages of 55 and 69 Years

This study aimed to understand determinants of recalled in-task affective valence experienced during a regularly performed aerobic bout in adult exercisers aged 55+. Qualitative data were collected (January to March, 2021, during the COVID-19 pandemic) using interviews wherein individuals (N = 16, 69% women, 61 ± 5 years) recalled deviations in affective valence in response to a regularly completed bout. Using thematic analyses, two themes emerged regarding how COVID-19 impacted regular exercise behaviors: (a) “loss” and (b) “adaptation.” Two themes encompassed the determinants of recalled in-task affective valence: (a) “person-specific conditions” and (b) “external conditions.” Finally, an increase in duration/intensity during a pleasant session was indicated by 44% of the participants, while 75% indicated a decrease in duration/intensity during an unpleasant session. The participants indicated that affective valence was determined by previously cited and novel factors that relate to exercise performed in naturalistic environments. Volitional modifications to planned exercise volume appear more responsive to feelings of displeasure.

When It HIITs, You Feel No Pain: Psychological and Psychophysiological Effects of Respite-Active Music in High-Intensity Interval Training

The authors investigated the effects of respite-active music (i.e., music used for active recovery in between high-intensity exercise bouts) on psychological and psychophysiological outcomes. Participants (N = 24) made four laboratory visits for a habituation, medium- and fast-tempo music conditions, and a no-music control. A high-intensity interval-training protocol comprising 8 × 60-s exercise bouts at 100% Wmax with 90-s active recovery was administered. Measures were taken at the end of exercise bouts and recovery periods (rating of perceived exertion [RPE], state attention, and core affect) and then upon cessation of the protocol (enjoyment and remembered pleasure). Heart rate was measured throughout. Medium-tempo music enhanced affective valence during exercise and recovery, while both music conditions increased dissociation (only during recovery), enjoyment, and remembered pleasure relative to control. Medium-tempo music lowered RPE relative to control, but the heart rate results were inconclusive. As predicted, medium-tempo music, in particular, had a meaningful effect on a range of psychological outcomes.

Momentary affective response to bouts of moderate-to-vigorous physical activity predicts changes in physical activity and sedentary behavior during behavioral weight loss

BACKGROUND

Affective responses are posited to be key predictors of the uptake and maintenance of health behaviors. However, few studies have examined how individuals' affective response to physical activity, as well as the degree to which their affect response changes, may predict changes in physical activity and sedentary time during behavioral weight loss treatment.

PURPOSE

The current study examined how baseline momentary affective response (i.e., stress and anxiety) to moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) and the degree of pre--post intervention change in this response predicted change in daily sedentary, light, and MVPA time during a three-month internet-based weight loss program.

METHODS

Women with overweight/obesity (final N=37) completed 14-day ecological momentary assessment (EMA) protocols with objective measurement of physical activity (i.e., bout-related MVPA time) before and after the intervention.

RESULTS

Women who had more reinforcing responses to MVPA (i.e., greater reductions in anxiety and stress response following MVPA bouts) at baseline had greater increases in overall MVPA at the end of the intervention. Those who had greater anxiety reductions after MVPA bouts at baseline also evidenced less sedentary time at the end of the intervention. Changes in affective responses across the intervention were not related to changes in physical activity levels.

CONCLUSIONS

Findings suggest initial levels of affective reinforcement from MVPA bouts predict future change in MVPA and sedentary time during behavioral weight loss. Future work is needed to examine the utility of more precisely targeting affective responses to physical activity to optimize intervention approaches.

Adult outdoor group sport play during a pandemic: Feasibility, acceptability, and program adherence results from a study of modifications to mitigate COVID-19 risk

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Attendance to an outdoor sport play program was high, despite COVID-19 precautions.

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Masking did not cause notable discomfort or problems socializing among participants.

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No new COVID symptoms/diagnoses were reported during or 10-days after 2-week study.

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All participants desired to continue program participation, if held in the future.

The purpose of this study was to investigate the feasibility, acceptability, and short-term adherence to an adult outdoor group sport play program designed to maximize enjoyment that was modified to incorporate COVID-19 risk mitigation strategies. We enrolled 17 healthy, but sedentary, central Pennsylvania adults (mean_age = 31.6 ± 7.3) without obesity via mail advertisements to participate in four, 60-minute sessions of instructor-led modified sport games (e.g., handball, Ultimate Frisbee, soccer) over a two-week period in October 2020. Durign recrutiment and the study period, there were approximately 1000–2000 new cases of COVID-19 daily in central Pennsylvania . The overall adherence rate to the sessions was 91%, and no participants reported new or existing COVID-19 symptoms or diagnoses during the two-week study period or 10-days following the final session. Despite enforcing mandatory COVID-19 safety measures (e.g., universal masking, social distancing), the participants reported enjoying the program and feeling socially connected with one another, while perceiving the program to be safe. Additionally, all participants expressed a desire to participate again, if the program were offered in the future. These results suggest that an outdoor group sport play program for adults can be feasible, acceptable, and well-adhered to despite enforcing mandatory COVID-19 safety precautions. Physical activity programs similar to the one presented here may provide an easily-adaptable approach to outdoor physical activity during the current and potential future pandemics that have viral transmission characteristics similar to COVID-19.

Does Attentional Focus Influence Psychophysiological Responses to an Acute Bout of Exercise? Evidence From an Experimental Study Using a Repeated-Measures Design

Attentional focus during aerobic exercise has been studied in the context of sports performance, injury prevention and affective experience. Previous research suggests that an additional mental task parallel to the physical activity might influence exercise experience and performance. It has been tested if attentional focus influences cardiovascular activity, positive/negative affect, and subjective exertion during a cycling exercise. Data from N = 30 female participants has been collected using a repeated measures design, with the following experimental manipulations: (A) an internal attention focus (i.e., paying attention to force production of the quadriceps muscles), (B) an external attention focus (i.e., paying attention to changes in brightness in the cycling track simulation), and as control conditions, (C) exercise without attention focus (i.e., no specific instruction was given) and (D) no exercise, no attention focus. Subjective affect and subjective exertion were assessed, and changes in cardiovascular activity were recorded via mobile impedance cardiography (ICG) at rest, during and after the exercise, including HR, HRV (RMSSD, HF), PEP, CO, SV, LVET, and RSA. Exercise was associated with adaptations in cardiovascular activity, positive/negative affect, and subjective exertion. However, this did not interact with attentional focus. The original hypothesis could not be supported: instructed attentional focus does not influence affect, exertion, or cardiovascular activity during a cycling exercise. Therefore, attentional focusing during exercise does not appear to put notable additional mental demands on the physically active participant. Nonetheless, impedance cardiography delivered reliable measurements even during the cycling exercise.

Applying P-Technique Factor Analysis to Explore Person-Specific Models of Readiness-to-Exercise

Recent research in exercise prescription and periodization has emphasized the importance of subjective experience, both in medium- and long-term monitoring, but also in the acute experience. Emerging evidence also highlights an important role of subjective readiness (pre-exercise mental and physical states) in determining how exercise is experienced, and in acutely modifying the prescribed exercise intensity. The concept of "readiness-to-exercise" shows promise in enabling and informing this acute decision-making to optimize the experiences and outcomes of exercise. While subjective experiences can be effectively assessed using psychometric scales and instruments, these are often developed and deployed using cross-sectional samples, with resulting structures that reflect a normative pattern (nomothetic). These patterns may fail to reflect individual differences in sensitivity, experience and saliency (idiographic). We conducted this research with the primary aim of comparing the nomothetical and idiographic approaches to modeling the relatively novel concept of readiness-to-exercise. Study 1 (nomothetic) therefore analyzed data collected from 572 participants who completed a one-time survey using R-technique factor analysis. Results indicated a four-factor structure that explained 60% of the variance: "health and fitness;" "fatigue;" "vitality" and "physical discomfort." Study 2 (idiographic) included a sample of 29 participants who completed the scale multiple times, between 42 and 56 times: permitting intra-individual analysis using separate P-technique factor analyses. Our analyses suggested that many individuals displayed personal signature, or "profiles" of readiness-to-exercise that differed in structure from the nomothetic form: only two participants' personal signatures contained four structures as modeled in Study 1, whereas the majority demonstrated either two or three factors. These findings raise important questions about how experiential data should be collected and modeled, for use in research (conceptual development and measurement) and applied practice (prescribing, monitoring)-as well as in more applied research (implementation, effectiveness).

Untapping the Health Enhancing Potential of Vigorous Intermittent Lifestyle Physical Activity (VILPA): Rationale, Scoping Review, and a 4-Pillar Research Framework

Recently revised public health guidelines acknowledge the health benefits of regular intermittent bouts of vigorous intensity incidental physical activity done as part of daily living, such as carrying shopping bags, walking uphill, and stair climbing. Despite this recognition and the advantages such lifestyle physical activity has over continuous vigorous intensity structured exercise, a scoping review we conducted revealed that current research in this area is, at best, rudimentary. Key gaps include the absence of an empirically-derived dose specification (e.g., minimum duration of lifestyle physical activity required to achieve absolute or relative vigorous intensity), lack of acceptable measurement standards, limited understanding of acute and chronic (adaptive) effects of intermittent vigorous bouts on health, and paucity of essential information necessary to develop feasible and scalable interventions (e.g., acceptability of this kind of physical activity by the public). To encourage collaboration and research agenda alignment among groups interested in this field, we propose a research framework to further understanding of vigorous intermittent lifestyle physical activity (VILPA). This framework comprises four pillars aimed at the development of: (a) an empirical definition of VILPA, (b) methods to reliably and accurately measure VILPA, (c) approaches to examine the short and long-term dose-response effects of VILPA, and (d) scalable and acceptable behavioural VILPA-promoting interventions.

Might High-Intensity Interval Exercise Be Remembered as More Pleasurable? An Attempt to Test the Peak-End Rule in the Exercise Context

Given humans' limited ability to recall past experiences for evaluation, scholars have proposed the peak-end rule stating that if perceived discomfort at the end of an aversive experience is lower than the peak discomfort experienced, the aversive experience will be remembered more positively. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the peak-end rule as applied to high-intensity interval exercise (HIIE). Participants were 30 inactive men (M age = 27.9, SD =  5.2 years). In the first session they performed a graded exercise test on cycle-ergometer to determine their maximal aerobic power (MAP) (M = 233, SD = 35W); and, in the second and third sessions, they performed two HIIE protocols in randomized order: (a) Short trial - 20-minutes of HIIE, composed of 30-second efforts at 100% of MAP interspersed by 30-seconds of passive recovery; and (b) Long trial - 20-minutes of the short trial, plus 10-minutes more of HIIE, decreasing 3% of MAP in each additional bout, resulting in 70% of MAP in the last bout. During exercise, we recorded the participants' rating of perceived exertion (RPE) and affect, using the Feeling Scale (FS). At 30-minutes post-exercise, we again recorded the participants' affect, using the Global Affect Evaluation (GAE) and their session-RPE, and we recorded their enjoyment, using the Physical Activity Enjoyment Scale (PACES). In the last session, the participants chose a favorite protocol to repeat. All sessions were interspersed by at least 72 hours. The 10-minutes extra HIIE in the Long-trial condition resulted decreased heart rate values (M = 157, SD = 13bpm to M = 144, SD = 14bpm; p < 0.001), but psychological responses during and after exercise did not differ, nor did participants' preferred HIIE protocol. As the load drop for the Long-trial was not enough to change the psychological responses during exercise, there was no difference in the retrospective evaluation as the peak-end rule would have suggested.

Recall of Affective Responses to Exercise: Examining the Influence of Intensity and Time

Affective responses to exercise are noted to be dynamic and frequently vacillate between positive and negative valence during physical activity. Recalled affect following exercise can influence anticipated affective responses to exercise and guide future behaviors. Research examining affective memory processes indicates that the recall of an experience can substantially differ from the actual experience and change over time. Grounded in the dual mode model (Ekkekakis, 2003), this study examines individuals' recall of exercise-related affect over a period of 2 weeks. Forty-two adults (26 women, 16 men; M_age = 29.64, SD = 5.69) completed two 20-min treadmill exercise trials in a randomized control crossover design; the trials were set either at a low or high exercise intensity based upon individuals' ventilatory threshold. Data analyses indicate that the affective responses to the low-intensity condition were evaluated more positively than in the high-intensity condition. Recalled affect fluctuated over a 2-week time period following both the low- and high-intensity exercise trials. A significant reduction at the 24-h recall measurement point was observed in both exercise intensity conditions. Implications for future research and health promotion interventions aiming to optimize affective responses to exercise are presented.

Are teachers’ subjective feelings linked with need-supportive and need-thwarting motivating styles? A cross-lagged pilot study in physical education

This article examines the relations between the teachers’ subjective feeling and their motivating teaching style during physical education lessons. Doing so, it aimed at better understanding the emotional antecedents of the teaching behaviors. Twelve volunteer physical education teachers were filmed with their respective classes to assess the motivating style they used during their intervention. Immediately after, the subjective feelings they felt during the lesson were assessed using the affective slider in a video-based session. Cross-lagged multilevel modeling was then performed, controlling for emotional exhaustion level and demographic factors. Results showed that, at the within level, subjective pleasant feelings predicted positively the relatedness-supportive dimension of the motivating style, and negatively the controlling dimension. At the between level, the controlling dimension of the motivating style was positively related to the pleasant subjective feelings while the relatedness-thwarting dimension was negatively related to them. While literature has mainly examined the cognitive antecedents of teachers’ motivating styles, this study emphasizes the emotional processes occurring during the lesson. Based on the conceptual framework of teachers’ emotions model proposed by Frenzel (2014), results indicate that teachers react to their subjective feelings, modifying the way they interact with students accordingly. In parallel with cognitive determinants of teaching, the emotional dimension thus deserves to be more deeply considered in future teaching training programs.

Affective Determinants of Physical Activity: A Conceptual Framework and Narrative Review

The literature on affective determinants of physical activity (PA) is growing rapidly. The present paper aims to provide greater clarity regarding the definition and distinctions among the various affect-related constructs that have been examined in relation to PA. Affective constructs are organized according to the Affect and Health Behavior Framework (AHBF), including: (1) affective response (e.g., how one feels in response to PA behavior) to PA; (2) incidental affect (e.g., how one feels throughout the day, unrelated to the target behavior); (3) affect processing (e.g., affective associations, implicit attitudes, remembered affect, anticipated affective response, and affective judgments); and (4) affectively charged motivational states (e.g., intrinsic motivation, fear, and hedonic motivation). After defining each category of affective construct, we provide examples of relevant research showing how each construct may relate to PA behavior. We conclude each section with a discussion of future directions for research.

Exploring determinants of recalled in-task affective valence during recreational exercise

Exercise-related affective responses, particularly in-task, have been implicated as influencing behavioral maintenance. An extensive body of literature, primarily using aerobic modes in laboratory settings, has identified a relatively consistent inverse relationship between intensity and affect. This relationship is purported to be partially accounted for by the saliency of interoceptive sensations (i.e., respiratory and heart rates, muscular effort), such that increased saliency elicits decreased affect. In naturalistic settings, exercise is volitional, individuals have comparatively more autonomy over exercise components (i.e., volume, duration, exercise intensity), and less is known regarding contributing factors of affective responses. Recalled affect may be perceived as a less invasive, more logistically feasible construct to measure in such settings. Thus, the purpose of the current study is to explore the basis of recalled affective valence following an acute bout of volitional exercise. Upon leaving the designated exercise area of a university recreation center, respondents (N = 236, 23y±10, 176cm±9.5, 76.9kg±16.2, 31.8% identified women, 68.2% identified men) were asked to complete a pen-and-paper survey regarding the bout they had just completed. Recalled affective valence was rated via 100 mm Visual Analog Scale, and respondents were asked to provide written explanation for the basis of recalled affective valence scores. Recalled affective valence scores were non-normally distributed (Mdn=81; IQR=30.5). Qualitative results indicate that interpretation of exertion and salient interoceptive sensations were mixed, resulting in both pleasant and unpleasant affective responses. Pre-exercise readiness factors (i.e., energy levels, substrate intake, and physical components) also contribute to recalled affective valence and could potentially explain variance in the interpretation of interoceptive sensations. Further research should expand on these findings through a more in-depth interview process and measuring factors of readiness before exercise.

Acute mechanical, physiological and perceptual responses in older men to traditional-set or different cluster-set configuration resistance training protocols

PURPOSE

The aims of this study were to compare mechanical outputs (i.e. power and impulse), physiological (i.e. heart rate) and perceptual (i.e. effort and fatigue) responses in older men to traditional-set or different cluster-set configuration resistance training protocols.

METHODS

In a randomized cross-over design, 20 healthy old men (aged 67.2 ± 2.1 years) completed four resistance training sessions using the back squat exercise loaded with optimal power loads. Training configurations were: traditional (TRA), three sets of six repetitions with 120-s rest between each set; Cluster-set 1 (CLU1), 24 single-repetition clusters with 10 s of rest after every cluster; Cluster-set 2 (CLU2), 12 double-repetition clusters with 20-s rest after every cluster; and Cluster-set 4 (CLU4), 6 quadruple-repetition clusters with 40-s rest after every cluster.

RESULTS

Cluster-set configurations resulted in greater power outputs compared to traditional-set configuration (range 2.6-9.2%, all p [Formula: see text] 0.07 for main effect and protocol [Formula: see text] set interactions). CLU1 and CLU2 induced higher heart rate (range 7.1-10.5%, all p < 0.001 for main effect and protocol [Formula: see text] set interactions), lower rating of perceived exertion (range - 1.3 to - 3.2 AU, all p [Formula: see text] 0.006 for pairwise comparisons) and lower ratings of fatigue (range - 0.15 to - 4 AU, all p [Formula: see text] 0.012 for pairwise comparisons) compared to TRA and CLU4. Finally, an absolute preference for CLU2 was reported.

CONCLUSIONS

Findings presented here support the prescription of CLU2 as an optimal resistance training configuration for trained older men using the back squat.

Affective responses to high-intensity interval training with continuous and respite music

Music has been shown to enhance affective responses to continuous exercise, but the most effective application of music during interval exercise is poorly understood. This study examined two contrasting applications of music designed to assuage the decline in pleasure often experienced during high-intensity interval training (HIIT). In a repeated measures crossover design, 18 recreationally active participants (10 men and 8 women; M _age = 25.1 ± 5.1 years; M _BMI = 23.08 ± 2.01 kg/m 2; M VO_2max = 38.82 ± 10.73 ml/kg/min) completed three HIIT sessions (10 x 60 s efforts at 100% Wmax, separated by 75 s recovery) on a cycle ergometer. Participants completed two experimental conditions: respite music (applied only during the recovery periods), continuous music (applied throughout the entire HIIT session); and a no-music control condition. Results indicated that music did not influence affective valence during the work bouts or recovery periods of the HIIT sessions (ps >.05), but that listening to music continuously elicited greater post-task enjoyment (p =.032, d = 0.66) and remembered pleasure (p =.044, d = 0.5). This study is the first to investigate the application of music during a practical HIIT protocol and to compare the effects of respite versus continuous music during interval exercise.

Temporal aspects of affective states, physiological responses, and perceived exertion in competitive cycling time trials

Athletes' affective states can vary dramatically before, during, and after competition. Further, intense affect is associated with physiological responses that may amplify biological reactions manifested from the execution of physical tasks underlying performance. Fluctuations in perceptual cues (eg, perceived exertion) and physiological responses (eg, blood lactate, heart rate) can influence performance and vary dramatically in relation to competition. However, the pattern of these fluctuations and potential associations between perceptual cues and biological responses may also diverge during task execution with differential implications for performance. Data collected from highly trained athletes (N = 25; M_age  = 25.4) during a competition (ie, maximum total distance) comprised of three 7-minute cycling time trials and were analyzed with longitudinal multilevel modeling. Results showed that affective states were negatively associated with perceived exertion at the within-person level and negatively associated with heart rate at the between-person level within each trial. Blood lactate and heart rate were positively associated at the between-person level, whereas heart rate was positively associated with perceived exertion at the within-person level. The anticipation of more pleasurable affective states predicted less decline in affective states, but not physiological responses, during each trial. Anticipated affective states prior to each trial were also associated with affective states upon its completion. These findings suggest associations among perceptual cues and physiological responses may differ depending on the level of analysis (between- vs. within-person level associations), and anticipated affective states prior to performance may influence affective states during and after task execution.

Examining the effects of mindfulness-based yoga instruction on positive embodiment and affective responses

Empirical evidence provides support for the inclusion of yoga as part of eating disorder prevention efforts through its positive impact on positive embodiment and experience of positive core affect. However, there is a need to identify the specific instructional strategies that will more consistently support positive embodiment and positive affect. We examined the effect of teaching a single yoga class using mindfulness-based instruction compared to appearance-based and neutral instruction alternatives on embodiment (i.e., state body surveillance, state body appreciation, pleasure during yoga) and changes in affect from before to after class. Female participants (N = 62; M _age = 23.89, SD = 6.86) were randomly assigned to a yoga class that emphasized: being mindfully present in one's body, changing one's appearance, or just getting into yoga poses. ANOVAs revealed significantly higher body surveillance (η_p ² =.10) and lower forecasted pleasure (η_p ² =.21) in the appearance class compared to the other two classes. Participants in the mindfulness class experienced greater improvement in affect (η_p ² =.08) from before to after class and higher remembered pleasure during the yoga class (η_p ² =.19) compared to those in the appearance class. Emphasizing changes to appearance in yoga instruction may place participants at risk for less positive affect and less positive experiences of embodiment compared to mindfulness-based or even neutral yoga instruction.

Ready Exerciser One: Effects of music and virtual reality on cycle ergometer exercise

OBJECTIVES

Physical inactivity remains a major global health concern, and researchers have been encouraged to explore the role of technology in the promotion of physical activity. Technologies that deliver audio-visual stimuli are frequently applied in the exercise domain. However, there is a paucity of research that examines the efficacy of modern virtual reality (VR) technology in this context. We investigated the effects of VR and music on affective, perceptual, enjoyment, and cardiac responses to aerobic-type exercise.

DESIGN

A fully counterbalanced, within-subjects design was employed.

METHODS

A convenience sample of recreationally active adult volunteers (N = 24) completed a 12-min protocol during which they exercised under music, VR, VR-with-music, and control conditions.

RESULTS

Analyses indicated a Condition × Time interaction for affective valence and perceived activation. Moreover, a main effect of condition emerged for state attention and perceived enjoyment. The VR and VR-with-music conditions elicited the most positive affective valence, highest levels of perceived activation, greatest number of dissociative thoughts, and most exercise enjoyment. Differences between these two conditions were negligible across the breadth of dependent variables.

CONCLUSIONS

The present findings illustrate the efficacy of modern VR technology in the exercise context, applied both with and without musical accompaniment. Additional research is required to assess the degree to which the findings are replicable among sedentary or ageing segments of the population. Given the emerging support pertaining to a positive relationship between affective responses and exercise adherence, VR technology should be considered as a means by which to promote an enjoyable exercise experience.

Increasing the Pleasure and Enjoyment of Exercise: A Novel Resistance-Training Protocol

This study was designed to test the effect of an increasing- (UP) or decreasing-intensity (DOWN) resistance-training (RT) protocol on the pleasure and enjoyment of RT. The participants (N = 40; mean age = 35.0 ± 9.2 years) completed two RT sessions comprising 3 × 10 repetitions of six exercises. In the UP condition, load progressively increased from 55% to 75% of 1-repetition maximum, while in the DOWN condition, this pattern was reversed (i.e., 75-55% 1-repetition maximum). The DOWN condition resulted in more overall pleasure compared with UP and a slope of increasing pleasure, while the UP condition resulted in decreasing pleasure. Enjoyment of RT, postexercise pleasure, and remembered pleasure were all significantly greater for DOWN compared with UP (all ps > .01). These findings suggest that decreasing RT intensity throughout an exercise bout can elicit a positive slope of pleasure and enhance affective evaluations of exercise.

Time-efficient and computer-guided sprint interval exercise training for improving health in the workplace: a randomised mixed-methods feasibility study in office-based employees

Background

The efficacy of high-intensity interval training (HIT) as a time-efficient exercise strategy for beneficially modifying risk factors for cardiovascular disease has repeatedly been demonstrated in controlled laboratory settings. However, the effectiveness of HIT in an unsupervised workplace setting has not been investigated. The objective of this study was to use mixed methods to investigate the feasibility, acceptability and effectiveness of a short-duration, high-intensity exercise intervention (REHIT) when applied unsupervised in a workplace setting.

Methods

Twenty-five office-workers (mean ± SD age: 47 ± 9 y, BMI: 27.5 ± 4.4 kg·m^− 2, V̇O₂max: 28 ± 7 mL·kg^− 1·min^− 1) completed a 6-week REHIT intervention unsupervised in their workplace (n = 13, 6 men), or acted as a no-intervention control (n = 12, 6 men). The intervention consisted of 2 sessions/week of low-intensity (~ 25 W) cycling interspersed with 2 ‘all-out’ sprints, increasing in duration from 10 to 20 s per sprint over the 6 weeks (total time-commitment: 8:40 min per session). V̇O₂max was assessed pre- and post-training, whilst questionnaire-based measures of exercise enjoyment, self-efficacy, and acceptability were completed post-training. Eight participants also completed post-intervention semi-structured interviews.

Results

V̇O₂max significantly improved in the exercise group (2.25 ± 0.75 L·min^− 1 vs. 2.42 ± 0.82 L·min^− 1; + 7.4%) compared to the control group (2.22 ± 0.72 L·min^− 1 vs. 2.17 ± 0.74 L·min^− 1; − 2.3%; time*intervention interaction effect: p < 0.01). Participants considered the REHIT intervention acceptable and enjoyable (PACES: 89 ± 17 out of 119) and were confident in their ability to continue to perform REHIT (7.8 ± 1.2 out of 9). Qualitative data revealed that REHIT offered a time-efficient opportunity to exercise, that was perceived as achievable, and which encouraged highly valued post-exercise outcomes (e.g. progress towards health/fitness benefits).

Conclusions

REHIT could be implemented as a feasible, effective and acceptable exercise intervention in a workplace setting, with a total time-commitment of < 20 min/week. Consideration of certain psycho-social factors and behaviour-change techniques may ensure adherence to the REHIT programme in the long term.

Trial registration

The study was registered on ClinicalTrials.gov on 07/05/2019 (registration: NCT03941145).

German recommendations for physical activity and physical activity promotion in adults with noncommunicable diseases

Background

Existing physical activity guidelines predominantly focus on healthy age-stratified target groups. The objective of this study was to develop evidence-based recommendations for physical activity (PA) and PA promotion for German adults (18–65 years) with noncommunicable diseases (NCDs).

Methods

The PA recommendations were developed based on existing PA recommendations. In phase 1, systematic literature searches were conducted for current PA recommendations for seven chronic conditions (osteoarthrosis of the hip and knee, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, stable ischemic heart disease, stroke, clinical depression, and chronic non-specific back pain). In phase 2, the PA recommendations were evaluated on the basis of 28 quality criteria, and high-quality recommendations were analysed. In phase 3, PA recommendations for seven chronic conditions were deducted and then synthesised to generate generic German PA recommendations for adults with NCDs. In relation to the recommendations for PA promotion, a systematic literature review was conducted on papers that reviewed the efficacy/effectiveness of interventions for PA promotion in adults with NCDs.

Results

The German recommendations for physical activity state that adults with NCDs should, over the course of a week, do at least 150 min of moderate-intensity aerobic PA, or 75 min of vigorous-intensity aerobic PA, or a combination of both. Furthermore, muscle-strengthening activities should be performed at least twice a week. The promotion of PA among adults with NCDs should be theory-based, specifically target PA behaviour, and be tailored to the respective target group. In this context, and as an intervention method, exercise referral schemes are one of the more promising methods of promoting PA in adults with NCDs.

Conclusion

The development of evidence-based recommendations for PA and PA promotion is an important step in terms of the initiation and implementation of actions for PA-related health promotion in Germany. The German recommendations for PA and PA promotion inform adults affected by NCDs and health professionals on how much PA would be optimal for adults with NCDs. Additionally, the recommendations provide professionals entrusted in PA promotion the best strategies and interventions to raise low PA levels in adults with NCDs. The formulation of specific PA recommendations for adults with NCDs and their combination with recommendations on PA promotion is a unique characteristic of the German recommendations.

Great Expectations: A Qualitative Analysis of the Factors That Influence Affective Forecasts for Exercise

The extent to which people expect to feel pleasure during exercise is proposed to influence an individual’s decision to be active. In order to identify the factors that shape this affective forecast for exercise, this study explored what people think about when creating their affective forecast for exercise. Thirty-one inactive participants provided an affective forecast for a moderate intensity exercise session using the global affective forecast questionnaire. Immediately after, they were asked a series of questions to verbally explain what they were thinking about in order to generate their forecast. Thematic analysis identified four themes relating to the exercise intensity, the exercise outcomes, the exercise environment, and the enjoyment of exercise that influenced affective forecast creation. Exercise practitioners should design strategies to manipulate these factors, and structure exercise environments to support a positive affective forecast and better motivate exercise participation.

Effects of three low-volume, high-intensity exercise conditions on affective valence

A common barrier to exercise is "lack of time". Accordingly, interest in low-volume, high-intensity training has grown exponentially since this activity is considered time-efficient. However, the high-intensity nature of this exercise may frequently result in feelings of displeasure creating another barrier for many people. The purpose of this study was to compare affective (pleasure-displeasure) responses to three low-volume, high-intensity exercise conditions, including a novel shortened-sprint protocol. Using a within-subjects, randomised crossover experiment, healthy participants (N = 36) undertook a single bout of: 1) traditional reduced-exertion, high-intensity interval training (TREHIT), 2) a novel, shortened-sprint REHIT (SSREHIT) protocol, and 3) sprint continuous training (SCT). Affect and perceived efforts were recorded throughout exercise using the Feeling Scale (FS) and the 15-point Borg Rating of Perceived Exertion (RPE) scale, respectively. Enjoyment was recorded 5 min post-exercise using the Exercise Enjoyment Scale (EES). Differences were found for FS (condition by time interaction: P = 0.01_GG, η² = 0.26), RPE (P = 0.01_GG, η² = 0.23), and enjoyment (P < 0.01) with all outcomes favouring SSREHIT. Shortened-sprint protocols may diminish feelings of displeasure and might be a time-efficient yet tolerable exercise choice to help motivate some people to increase their physical activity and fitness.

Mediators of Behavior Change Maintenance in Physical Activity Interventions for Young and Middle-Aged Adults: A Systematic Review

Background

Regular physical activity is important for maintaining physical and mental health. Benefits are optimized when physical activity is maintained. Understanding causal mechanisms is important to inform future interventions.

Purpose

To investigate mediators of physical activity maintenance.

Methods

Six databases were searched (Medline, EMBASE, PsycINFO, CINAHL, Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, and Web of Science). Eligibility criteria included adult nonclinical populations, validated measure of physical activity behavior at baseline and at least 6 months postbaseline, control/comparison group(s), and reported mediators of physical activity behavior change. Mediators were examined according to (i) formal mediation tests, (ii) mediator association with physical activity outcome, and (iii) intervention effects on mediators.

Results

There were few formal mediation tests conducted (n = 12/39 included studies), and various other methodological limitations were identified. There was some evidence that effective mediators in formal mediation tests at 6 months and later included the "behavioral processes of change" (n = 5/6). Many of the included interventions were not effective for changing targeted mediators (only 34% of 413 tests of mediator changes were significant).

Conclusions

There were a number of methodological and statistical limitations in the evidence base. In future, prespecified formal mediation tests should be carried out and could be aided by a formal framework. Social and environmental variables should be considered in addition to intrapersonal variables. Improving knowledge of how to change hypothesized mediators, based on theory and evidence, will reveal how physical activity behavior change maintenance can be achieved. Maintenance research would be enhanced by establishing a formal definition of behavior change "maintenance." PROSPERO registration: PROSPERO 2015:CRD- 42015025462.

Critical Review of Measurement Practices in the Study of Automatic Associations of Sedentary Behavior, Physical Activity, and Exercise

Studies of automatic associations of sedentary behavior, physical activity, and exercise are proliferating, but the lack of information on the psychometric properties of relevant measures is a potential impediment to progress. The purpose of this review was to critically summarize measurement practices in studies examining automatic associations related to sedentary behavior, physical activity, and exercise. Of 37 studies, 27 (73%) did not include a justification for the measure chosen to assess automatic associations. Additional problems have been noted, including the nonreporting of psychometric information (validity, internal consistency, test-retest reliability) and the lack of standardization of procedures (e.g., number, type of stimuli). The authors emphasize the need to select measures based on conceptual arguments and psychometric evidence and to standardize measurement procedures. To facilitate progress, the review concludes with a proposal for conceptually appropriate validation criteria to be used in future studies.

High Intensity Long Interval Sets Provides Similar Enjoyment as Continuous Moderate Intensity Exercise. The Tromsø Exercise Enjoyment Study

OBJECTIVE

High intensity interval exercise sessions with interval sets over 3 min may provide superior cardiorespiratory fitness benefits. To our knowledge, the exercise enjoyment of interval sets over 3 min is not yet elucidated. The aim of this study was to examine exercise enjoyment following one session with four intervals of 4 min high intensity exercise (HIIE) versus one session of 45 min moderate intensity continuous exercise (CE) in iso-caloric conditions using a randomized crossover design.

METHODS

Seven young healthy participants were recruited to undergo two different exercise sessions in a randomized order: (1) 4 × 4 min intervals at >90% of maximum heart rate (HR max ) with 3 min of rest between interval sets, and (2) 45 min CE at 70% of HR max . Peak oxygen uptake and HR max were evaluated prior to the experiment. The participants reported their perceived exercise enjoyment using the 18-item physical activity enjoyment scale (PACES) questionnaire and their rating of perceived exertion (RPE) using Borg's 6-20 scale.

RESULTS

There was no difference in the PACES score between the high intensity interval exercise session [median: 95.5 (inter-quartile range: 21.8)] and the moderate intensity CE session [91.0 (13.5), p = 0.36, r = -0.22]. The participants reported a higher RPE in the high intensity interval exercise session [16.5 (2.0)] compared with the CE session [9.0 (2.0), p = 0.01, r = -0.88].

CONCLUSION

Similar exercise enjoyment was reported following four high intensity intervals of 4 min compared with a moderate intensity CE session in this randomized crossover study with iso-caloric conditions. If enjoyment is a mediating factor for engaging in exercise, one should expect a similar probability of exercise adherence following high intensity 4 min intervals and continuous moderate intensity exercise when prescribing aerobic exercise as preventive medicine.

Perceptions of groupness during fitness classes positively predict recalled perceptions of exertion, enjoyment, and affective valence: An intensive longitudinal investigation

Group contexts such as fitness classes are popular forms of physical activity, and studying them can uncover new ways to promote exercise adherence. Focusing on the potential for group fitness experiences to vary from class-to-class, we examined how exercisers' dynamic perceptions of groupness relate to recalled perceptions of exercise enjoyment, affective valence, and exertion. These outcome variables are in focus because they are theoretically construed to be determinants of physical activity. Using an intensive sampling methodology across a two-week period, 97 adult exercisers (M _age = 42.35 years) completed surveys following each fitness class attended (695 unique responses). Using multilevel confirmatory factor analysis, we confirmed a theorized two-factor structure of groupness at both the within-and between-person levels. Multilevel modeling revealed that class-to-class fluctuations in exercisers' perceptions of groupness explained a considerable portion of variance in recalled perceptions of exertion, enjoyment, and affective valence. Specifically, during classes in which exercisers' perceptions of groupness were relatively higher, exercisers reported more recalled enjoyment, affective valence, and exertion. Focusing on how variability in groupness perceptions may influence exercise adherence, these findings demonstrate the value in fitness classes feeling like authentic groups. In studying the dynamic aspects of group evaluations, the current study makes novel advancements to group theories applied to exercise settings. Perhaps most notably, individuals' variations in their cognitive evaluations of fitness groups were closely linked to their affective responses to exercise.

Advances in rehabilitation for chronic diseases: improving health outcomes and function

Much of the burden on healthcare systems is related to the management of chronic conditions such as cardiovascular disease and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Although conventional outpatient cardiopulmonary rehabilitation programs significantly decrease morbidity and mortality and improve function and health related quality of life for people with chronic diseases, rehabilitation programs are underused. Barriers to enrollment are multifactorial and include failure to recommend and refer patients to these services; poor communication with patients about potential benefits; and patient factors including logistical and financial barriers, comorbidities, and competing demands that make participation in facility based programs difficult. Recent advances in rehabilitation programs that involve remotely delivered technology could help deliver services to more people who might benefit. Problems with intensity, adherence, and safety of home based programs have been investigated in recent clinical trials, and larger dissemination and implementation trials are under way. This review summarizes the evidence for benefit of in-person cardiac and pulmonary rehabilitation programs. It also reviews the literature on newer developments, such as home based remotely mediated exercise programs developed to decrease cost and improve accessibility, high intensity interval training in cardiac rehabilitation, and alternative therapies such as tai chi and yoga for people with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease.