1
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Quan MC, Mai DJ. Biomolecular Actuators for Soft Robots. Chem Rev 2025; 125:4974-5002. [PMID: 40331746 DOI: 10.1021/acs.chemrev.4c00811] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/08/2025]
Abstract
Biomolecules present promising stimuli-responsive mechanisms to revolutionize soft actuators. Proteins, peptides, and nucleic acids foster specific intermolecular interactions, and their boundless sequence design spaces encode precise actuation capabilities. Drawing inspiration from nature, biomolecular actuators harness existing stimuli-responsive properties to meet the needs of diverse applications. This review features biomolecular actuators that respond to a wide variety of stimuli to drive both user-directed and autonomous actuation. We discuss how advances in biomaterial fabrication accelerate prototyping of precise, custom actuators, and we identify biomolecules with untapped actuation potential. Finally, we highlight opportunities for multifunctional and reconfigurable biomolecules to improve the versatility and sustainability of next-generation soft actuators.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michelle C Quan
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, California 94305, United States
| | - Danielle J Mai
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, California 94305, United States
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, California 94305, United States
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2
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Guo H, Li K, Priimagi A, Zeng H. Emergent Locomotion in Self-Sustained, Mechanically Connected Soft Matter Ringsf. ADVANCED MATERIALS (DEERFIELD BEACH, FLA.) 2025:e2503519. [PMID: 40304142 DOI: 10.1002/adma.202503519] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/20/2025] [Revised: 04/02/2025] [Indexed: 05/02/2025]
Abstract
In nature, the interplay between individual organisms often leads to the emergence of complex belabours, of which sophistication has been refined through millions of years of evolution. Synthetic materials research has focused on mimicking the natural complexity, e.g., by harnessing non-equilibrium states to drive self-assembly processes. However, it is highly challenging to understand the interaction dynamics between non-equilibrium entities and to obtain collective behavior that can arise autonomously through interaction. In this study, thermally fueled, twisted rings exhibiting self-sustained movements are used as fundamental units and their interactive behaviors and emergent functions are investigated. The rings are fabricated from connected thermoresponsive liquid crystal elastomers (LCEs) strips that undergo zero-elastic-energy-mode, autonomous motions upon a heat gradient. Single-ring structures with various twisting numbers and nontrivial links, and connected knots where several LCE rings (N = 2,3,4,5) are studied and linked. The observations uncover that controlled locomotion of the structures can emerge when N ≥ 3. The locomotion can be programmed by controlling the handedness at the connection points between the individual rings. These findings illustrate how group activity emerges from individual responsive material components through mechanical coupling, offering a model for programming autonomous locomotion in soft matter constructs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hongshuang Guo
- Faculty of Engineering and Natural Sciences, Tampere University, P.O. Box 541, Tampere, FI-33101, Finland
| | - Kai Li
- Department of Civil Engineering, Anhui Jianzhu University, Hefei, 230601, China
| | - Arri Priimagi
- Faculty of Engineering and Natural Sciences, Tampere University, P.O. Box 541, Tampere, FI-33101, Finland
| | - Hao Zeng
- Faculty of Engineering and Natural Sciences, Tampere University, P.O. Box 541, Tampere, FI-33101, Finland
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3
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Qi F, Zhou C, Qing H, Sun H, Yin J. Aerial Track-Guided Autonomous Soft Ring Robot. ADVANCED SCIENCE (WEINHEIM, BADEN-WURTTEMBERG, GERMANY) 2025:e2503288. [PMID: 40279520 DOI: 10.1002/advs.202503288] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/20/2025] [Revised: 03/28/2025] [Indexed: 04/27/2025]
Abstract
Navigating in three-dimensional (3D) environments with precise motion control is challenging for soft robots due to their inherent flexibility. Inspired by aerial trams, here, an autonomous soft twisted ring robot is reported capable of navigating pre-defined tracks in 3D space under constant photothermal actuation, without requiring spatiotemporal control of actuation sources. Made of liquid crystal elastomers, the ring robot, suspended on thread-based tracks, self-flips around its centerline when exposed to constant infrared light. Curling the twisted ring around tracks converts its self-rotary motion into autonomous linear movement via screw theory. This mechanism enables the autonomous robot to adapt to tracks of various materials and micron-to-millimeter sizes, overcome obstacles like knots on tracks, transport loads over 12 times its weight, ascend and descend steep slopes up to 80°, and navigate complex paths, including circular, polygonal, and 3D spiral tracks, as well as loose threads with dynamically changing shapes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fangjie Qi
- Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC, 27695, USA
| | - Caizhi Zhou
- Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC, 27695, USA
| | - Haitao Qing
- Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC, 27695, USA
| | - Haoze Sun
- Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC, 27695, USA
| | - Jie Yin
- Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC, 27695, USA
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4
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Zang T, Muhetaer R, Zhang C, Fu S, Cheng J, Lu X, Hu J, Xia H, Zhao Y. Self-Sustained Liquid Crystal Elastomer Actuators with Geometric Zero-Elastic-Energy Modes. Macromol Rapid Commun 2025:e2500134. [PMID: 40249475 DOI: 10.1002/marc.202500134] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/07/2025] [Revised: 03/30/2025] [Indexed: 04/19/2025]
Abstract
Recently, a novel and fascinating actuation mode of liquid crystal elastomers (LCEs), known as geometric zero-elastic-energy modes (ZEEMs), has drawn intensive research interest. Based on this actuation mechanism, LCE actuators exhibit untethered, autonomous movements under external stimulations, demonstrating significant potential for applications in intelligent soft robots, autonomous energy conversion systems, and smart optical tuning components. This perspective provides a timely summary of the current research on LCE actuators based on ZEEMs and highlights their future development trends and prospects, which will be of great interest to broad communities of researchers in fields of LCEs, biomimetic smart materials, soft robotics, and actuators.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tongzhi Zang
- National Key Laboratory of Advanced Polymer Materials, Polymer Research Institute, Sichuan University, Chengdu, 610065, China
- Center for Molecular Science and Engineering, College of Science, Northeastern University, Shenyang, 110819, China
| | - Reyihanguli Muhetaer
- National Key Laboratory of Advanced Polymer Materials, Polymer Research Institute, Sichuan University, Chengdu, 610065, China
| | - Chun Zhang
- National Key Laboratory of Advanced Polymer Materials, Polymer Research Institute, Sichuan University, Chengdu, 610065, China
| | - Shuang Fu
- National Key Laboratory of Advanced Polymer Materials, Polymer Research Institute, Sichuan University, Chengdu, 610065, China
| | - Junpeng Cheng
- National Key Laboratory of Advanced Polymer Materials, Polymer Research Institute, Sichuan University, Chengdu, 610065, China
| | - Xili Lu
- National Key Laboratory of Advanced Polymer Materials, Polymer Research Institute, Sichuan University, Chengdu, 610065, China
| | - Jianshe Hu
- Center for Molecular Science and Engineering, College of Science, Northeastern University, Shenyang, 110819, China
| | - Hesheng Xia
- National Key Laboratory of Advanced Polymer Materials, Polymer Research Institute, Sichuan University, Chengdu, 610065, China
| | - Yue Zhao
- Département de chimie, Université de Sherbrooke, Sherbrooke, Québec, J1K 2R1, Canada
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5
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Zhao T, Lv JA. Phototunable Rayleigh 3D Soft Self-Oscillator Enabling Versatile Biomimetic Tubular Peristaltic Pumping. ADVANCED MATERIALS (DEERFIELD BEACH, FLA.) 2025:e2502434. [PMID: 40200749 DOI: 10.1002/adma.202502434] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/05/2025] [Revised: 03/20/2025] [Indexed: 04/10/2025]
Abstract
Living tubular organs can spatiotemporally and cyclically deform their muscular walls to implement adaptable and sustainable peristaltic pumping applicable to broad matter, achieved via asymmetric and non-equilibrium self-oscillating deformations of muscular walls. However, man-made tubular soft actuators have been limited to pumping a few simple matters, because of their reciprocal and monotonic wall motions that cannot break time-reversal symmetry and system equilibrium to gain adaptable and sustainable pumping. Here, a phototunable Rayleigh 3D soft self-oscillator (PR3DSSO) capable of multimodal, nonreciprocal, self-sustainable wall deformations is presented. PR3DSSO's design leverages two direction-and-dimension-phototunable tubular instabilities: snapping and postbuckling. The post-buckling instability can generate local-wall origami which cannot only fold local walls into multimodal shape-mode waves, but also break wall-motion symmetry; snapping instabilities help break equilibrium in wall motions to initiate autonomous wall motions. These phototunable-instabilities-driven wall deformations unprecedentedly create Rayleigh-like 3D wall motions, which allow for versatile biomimetic tubular peristaltic pumping adapt to broad matter. Our PR3DSSO would spur creative life-like active-material designs and novel pumping functions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tonghui Zhao
- Key Laboratory of 3D Micro/Nano Fabrication and Characterization of Zhejiang Province, School of Engineering, Westlake University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang Province, 310024, China
- School of Engineering, Westlake University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, 310030, China
| | - Jiu-An Lv
- Key Laboratory of 3D Micro/Nano Fabrication and Characterization of Zhejiang Province, School of Engineering, Westlake University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang Province, 310024, China
- School of Engineering, Westlake University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, 310030, China
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6
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Polat DS, Chen Z, Weima SAM, Aya S, Liu D. An autonomous snapper featuring adaptive actuation and embodied intelligence. SCIENCE ADVANCES 2025; 11:eadu4268. [PMID: 40184466 PMCID: PMC11970476 DOI: 10.1126/sciadv.adu4268] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/15/2024] [Accepted: 03/03/2025] [Indexed: 04/06/2025]
Abstract
Developing artificial systems with autonomous motion is essential for creating devices that emulate nature's adaptive mechanisms. Here, we introduce a light-driven liquid crystalline network snapper that integrates both sensing and actuation capabilities, enabling adaptive responses to environmental conditions. Under constant light illumination, the snapper undergoes spontaneous snap-through transformation driven by the elastic instability embedded within the material. The snapper achieves out-of-equilibrium motion through continuous energy transfer with the environment, enabling it to sustain dynamic, reversible cycles of snapping without external control. We demonstrate the ability of the liquid crystalline network snapper to detect environmental changes-such as shifts in temperature, surface roughness, and color-demonstrating a form of embodied intelligence. This work offers a distinctive strategy for designing biomimetic devices that merge embodied intelligence with autonomous motion, opening pathways for advanced, adaptive systems for soft robotics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Duygu S. Polat
- Human Interactive Materials, Department of Chemical Engineering and Chemistry, Eindhoven University of Technology, Den Dolech 2, 5612 AZ Eindhoven, Netherlands
- Institute for Complex Molecular Systems, Eindhoven University of Technology, Den Dolech 2, 5612 AZ Eindhoven, Netherlands
| | - Zihua Chen
- South China Advanced Institute for Soft Matter Science and Technology (AISMST), School of Emergent Soft Matter, South China University of Technology, Guangzhou, China
| | - Samüel A. M. Weima
- Human Interactive Materials, Department of Chemical Engineering and Chemistry, Eindhoven University of Technology, Den Dolech 2, 5612 AZ Eindhoven, Netherlands
- Institute for Complex Molecular Systems, Eindhoven University of Technology, Den Dolech 2, 5612 AZ Eindhoven, Netherlands
| | - Satoshi Aya
- South China Advanced Institute for Soft Matter Science and Technology (AISMST), School of Emergent Soft Matter, South China University of Technology, Guangzhou, China
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Functional and Intelligent Hybrid Materials and Devices, Guangdong Basic Research Center of Excellence for Energy and Information Polymer Materials, South China University of Technology, Guangzhou, China
| | - Danqing Liu
- Human Interactive Materials, Department of Chemical Engineering and Chemistry, Eindhoven University of Technology, Den Dolech 2, 5612 AZ Eindhoven, Netherlands
- Institute for Complex Molecular Systems, Eindhoven University of Technology, Den Dolech 2, 5612 AZ Eindhoven, Netherlands
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7
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Ng A, Telles R, Riley KS, Lewis JA, Cook CC, Lee E, Yang S. Coaxial Direct Ink Writing of Cholesteric Liquid Crystal Elastomers in 3D Architectures. ADVANCED MATERIALS (DEERFIELD BEACH, FLA.) 2025; 37:e2416621. [PMID: 39865794 PMCID: PMC11899511 DOI: 10.1002/adma.202416621] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2024] [Revised: 12/22/2024] [Indexed: 01/28/2025]
Abstract
Cholesteric liquid crystal elastomers (CLCEs) hold great promise for mechanochromic applications in anti-counterfeiting, smart textiles, and soft robotics, thanks to the structural color and elasticity. While CLCEs are printed via direct ink writing (DIW) to fabricate free-standing films, complex 3D structures are not fabricated due to the opposing rheological properties necessary for cholesteric alignment and multilayer stacking. Here, 3D CLCE structures are realized by utilizing coaxial DIW to print a CLC ink within a silicone ink. By tailoring the ink compositions, and thus, the rheological properties, the cholesteric phase rapidly forms without an annealing step, while the silicone shell provides encapsulation and support to the CLCE core, allowing for layer-by-layer printing of self-supported 3D structures. As a demonstration, free-standing bistable thin-shell domes are printed. Color changes due to compressive and tensile stresses can be witnessed from the top and bottom of the inverted domes, respectively. When the domes are arranged in an array and inverted, they can snap back to their base state by uniaxial stretching, thereby functioning as mechanical sensors with memory. The additive manufacturing platform enables the rapid fabrication of 3D mechanochromic sensors thereby expanding the realm of potential applications for CLCEs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alicia Ng
- Department of Materials Science and EngineeringUniversity of Pennsylvania3231 Walnut StreetPhiladelphiaPA19104USA
| | - Rodrigo Telles
- John A. Paulson School of Engineering and Applied Sciences and Wyss Institute for Biologically Inspired EngineeringHarvard UniversityCambridgeMA02138USA
| | | | - Jennifer A. Lewis
- John A. Paulson School of Engineering and Applied Sciences and Wyss Institute for Biologically Inspired EngineeringHarvard UniversityCambridgeMA02138USA
| | | | - Elaine Lee
- Lawrence Livermore National LaboratoryLivermoreCA94550USA
| | - Shu Yang
- Department of Materials Science and EngineeringUniversity of Pennsylvania3231 Walnut StreetPhiladelphiaPA19104USA
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8
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Ai W, Wu J, Long Y, Song K. A Rolling Light-Driven Pneumatic Soft Actuator Based on Liquid-Gas Phase Change. ADVANCED MATERIALS (DEERFIELD BEACH, FLA.) 2025; 37:e2418218. [PMID: 39924788 DOI: 10.1002/adma.202418218] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2024] [Indexed: 02/11/2025]
Abstract
Light-driven wireless actuators provide obvious advantages for remote control. However, traditional double-layer actuators are restricted to the thin film deformation mode when undertaking complex tasks. Here, an actuator is proposed that employs thermal strain and local photothermal effects induced by low boiling point liquids to generate asymmetry along the fiber axis, thereby causing elastic deformation of the fiber. Under continuous irradiation, the sustained elastic deformation results in dynamic frustration within the fiber, creating torque around its axis. Based on this principle, the fiber actuator fabricated in this study enables rolling translation, while the ring actuator achieves simultaneous rolling and lifting motion for object manipulation. Continuous rolling under light eliminates the need for complex light manipulation. This new movement method offers an insight for various application scenarios.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wenfei Ai
- CAS Key Laboratory of Bio-inspired Materials and Interfaces Sciences, Technical Institute of Physics and Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100190, China
- School of Future Technology, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049, P. R. China
| | - Jiaxin Wu
- CAS Key Laboratory of Bio-inspired Materials and Interfaces Sciences, Technical Institute of Physics and Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100190, China
- School of Future Technology, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049, P. R. China
| | - Yue Long
- CAS Key Laboratory of Bio-inspired Materials and Interfaces Sciences, Technical Institute of Physics and Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100190, China
- Binzhou Institute of Technology, Weiqiao-UCAS Science and Technology Park, Binzhou City, Shandong Province, 256606, China
| | - Kai Song
- CAS Key Laboratory of Bio-inspired Materials and Interfaces Sciences, Technical Institute of Physics and Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100190, China
- School of Future Technology, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049, P. R. China
- Binzhou Institute of Technology, Weiqiao-UCAS Science and Technology Park, Binzhou City, Shandong Province, 256606, China
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9
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Bai C, Kang J, Wang YQ. Kirigami-Inspired Light-Responsive Conical Spiral Actuators with Large Contraction Ratio Using Liquid Crystal Elastomer Fiber. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2025. [PMID: 39997606 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.4c20234] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/26/2025]
Abstract
Liquid crystal elastomers (LCEs) are among the key smart materials driving soft robotics and LCE fibers have garnered significant attention for their rapid response characteristics. A convenient and fast method for programming orientations of liquid crystal molecules is a focal issue in LCE applications. Inspired by the Kirigami technique, here, we propose a novel method for fabricating LCE fibers based on customizable cutting paths and secondary photo-cross-linking. While most existing LCE actuators exhibit contraction ratios of around 30 to 40%, our conical spiral actuator, fabricated from LCE-carbon nanotube (CNT) fiber using the proposed method, demonstrates a significantly higher contraction ratio, reaching up to 80%. The contraction ratio can be controlled by adjusting the cutting path parameters and we elucidate the mechanism linking liquid crystal orientation to the distribution of contraction ratio. Additionally, the conical spiral deformation of the actuator can be manipulated with light radiation, enabling versatile functionalities such as catching, twisting, and gripping. We hope that the novel LCE fiber fabrication method presented provides new insights for programming and preparing LCE fibers, offering a valuable reference for the application of smart soft materials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cunping Bai
- Key Laboratory of Structural Dynamics of Liaoning Province, College of Sciences, Northeastern University, Shenyang 110819, China
| | - Jingtian Kang
- Key Laboratory of Structural Dynamics of Liaoning Province, College of Sciences, Northeastern University, Shenyang 110819, China
| | - Yan Qing Wang
- Key Laboratory of Structural Dynamics of Liaoning Province, College of Sciences, Northeastern University, Shenyang 110819, China
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10
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Lee JH, Oh S, Jeong IS, Lee YJ, Kim MC, Park JS, Hyun K, Ware TH, Ahn SK. Redefining the limits of actuating fibers via mesophase control: From contraction to elongation. SCIENCE ADVANCES 2025; 11:eadt7613. [PMID: 39823321 PMCID: PMC11740944 DOI: 10.1126/sciadv.adt7613] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/10/2024] [Accepted: 12/17/2024] [Indexed: 01/19/2025]
Abstract
The development of fibrous actuators with diverse actuation modes is expected to accelerate progress in active textiles, robotics, wearable electronics, and haptics. Despite the advances in responsive polymer-based actuating fibers, the available actuation modes are limited by the exclusive reliance of current technologies on thermotropic contraction along the fiber axis. To address this gap, the present study describes a reversible and spontaneous thermotropic elongation (~30%) in liquid crystal elastomer fibers produced via ultraviolet-assisted melt spinning. This elongation arises from the orthogonal alignment of smectogenic mesogens relative to the fiber axis, which contrasts the parallel alignment typically observed in nematic liquid crystal elastomer fibers and is achieved through mesophase control during extrusion. The fibers exhibiting thermotropic elongation enable active textiles increase pore size in response to temperature increase. The integration of contracting and elongating fibers within a single textile enables spatially distinct actuation, paving the way for innovations in smart clothing and fiber/textile actuators.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jin-Hyeong Lee
- School of Chemical Engineering, Pusan National University, Busan, Republic of Korea
| | - Seungjoon Oh
- School of Chemical Engineering, Pusan National University, Busan, Republic of Korea
| | - In-sun Jeong
- Department of Polymer Science and Engineering, Pusan National University, Busan, Republic of Korea
| | - Yoo Jin Lee
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, USA
| | - Min Chan Kim
- School of Chemical Engineering, Pusan National University, Busan, Republic of Korea
| | - Jong S. Park
- School of Chemical Engineering, Pusan National University, Busan, Republic of Korea
| | - Kyu Hyun
- School of Chemical Engineering, Pusan National University, Busan, Republic of Korea
| | - Taylor H. Ware
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, USA
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, USA
| | - Suk-kyun Ahn
- School of Chemical Engineering, Pusan National University, Busan, Republic of Korea
- Department of Polymer Science and Engineering, Pusan National University, Busan, Republic of Korea
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11
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Feng W, He Q, Zhang L. Embedded Physical Intelligence in Liquid Crystalline Polymer Actuators and Robots. ADVANCED MATERIALS (DEERFIELD BEACH, FLA.) 2025; 37:e2312313. [PMID: 38375751 PMCID: PMC11733722 DOI: 10.1002/adma.202312313] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/17/2023] [Revised: 01/27/2024] [Indexed: 02/21/2024]
Abstract
Responsive materials possess the inherent capacity to autonomously sense and respond to various external stimuli, demonstrating physical intelligence. Among the diverse array of responsive materials, liquid crystalline polymers (LCPs) stand out for their remarkable reversible stimuli-responsive shape-morphing properties and their potential for creating soft robots. While numerous reviews have extensively detailed the progress in developing LCP-based actuators and robots, there exists a need for comprehensive summaries that elucidate the underlying principles governing actuation and how physical intelligence is embedded within these systems. This review provides a comprehensive overview of recent advancements in developing actuators and robots endowed with physical intelligence using LCPs. This review is structured around the stimulus conditions and categorizes the studies involving responsive LCPs based on the fundamental control and stimulation logic and approach. Specifically, three main categories are examined: systems that respond to changing stimuli, those operating under constant stimuli, and those equip with learning and logic control capabilities. Furthermore, the persisting challenges that need to be addressed are outlined and discuss the future avenues of research in this dynamic field.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wei Feng
- Department of Mechanical and Automation EngineeringThe Chinese University of Hong KongHong KongChina
| | - Qiguang He
- Department of Mechanical and Automation EngineeringThe Chinese University of Hong KongHong KongChina
| | - Li Zhang
- Department of Mechanical and Automation EngineeringThe Chinese University of Hong KongHong KongChina
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12
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Zhou C, Xu Z, Lin Z, Qin X, Xia J, Ai X, Lou C, Huang Z, Huang S, Liu H, Zou Y, Chen W, Yang GZ, Gao A. Submillimeter fiber robots capable of decoupled macro-micro motion for endoluminal manipulation. SCIENCE ADVANCES 2024; 10:eadr6428. [PMID: 39576861 PMCID: PMC11584019 DOI: 10.1126/sciadv.adr6428] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2024] [Accepted: 10/22/2024] [Indexed: 11/24/2024]
Abstract
Endoluminal and endocavitary intervention via natural orifices of the body is an emerging trend in medicine, further underpinning the future of early intervention and precision surgery. This motivates the development of small continuum robots to navigate freely in confined and tortuous environment. The trade-off between a large range of motion and high precision with concomitant actuation cross-talk poses a major challenge. Here, we present a submillimeter-scale fiber robot (~1 mm) capable of decoupled macro and micro manipulations for intervention and operation. The thin optical fibers, working both as mechanical tendons and light waveguides, can be pulled/pushed to actuate the macro tendon-driven continuum robot and transmit light to actuate the liquid crystal elastomer-based micro built-in light-driven parallel robot. The combination of the decoupled macro and micro motions can accomplish accurate cross-scale motion from several millimeters down to tens of micrometers. In vivo animal studies are performed to demonstrate its positioning accuracy of precise micro operations in endoluminal or endocavitary intervention.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cheng Zhou
- Institute of Medical Robotics, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200240, China
- Department of Automation, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200240, China
| | - Zheng Xu
- Institute of Medical Robotics, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200240, China
- Department of Automation, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200240, China
| | - Zecai Lin
- Institute of Medical Robotics, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200240, China
- Department of Automation, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200240, China
| | - Xiaotong Qin
- Institute of Medical Robotics, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200240, China
- Department of Automation, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200240, China
| | - Jingyuan Xia
- Institute of Medical Robotics, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200240, China
- Department of Automation, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200240, China
| | - Xiaojie Ai
- Institute of Medical Robotics, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200240, China
- Department of Automation, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200240, China
| | - Chuqian Lou
- Institute of Medical Robotics, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200240, China
| | - Ziyi Huang
- Department of Automation, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200240, China
| | - Shaoping Huang
- Institute of Medical Robotics, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200240, China
| | - Huanghua Liu
- Institute of Medical Robotics, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200240, China
- Department of Automation, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200240, China
| | - Yun Zou
- Institute of Medical Robotics, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200240, China
| | - Weidong Chen
- Institute of Medical Robotics, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200240, China
- Department of Automation, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200240, China
| | - Guang-Zhong Yang
- Institute of Medical Robotics, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200240, China
| | - Anzhu Gao
- Institute of Medical Robotics, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200240, China
- Department of Automation, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200240, China
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13
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Tian X, Guo Y, Zhang J, Ivasishin OM, Jia J, Yan J. Fiber Actuators Based on Reversible Thermal Responsive Liquid Crystal Elastomer. SMALL (WEINHEIM AN DER BERGSTRASSE, GERMANY) 2024; 20:e2306952. [PMID: 38175860 DOI: 10.1002/smll.202306952] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/14/2023] [Revised: 12/16/2023] [Indexed: 01/06/2024]
Abstract
Soft actuators inspired by the movement of organisms have attracted extensive attention in the fields of soft robotics, electronic skin, artificial intelligence, and healthcare due to their excellent adaptability and operational safety. Liquid crystal elastomer fiber actuators (LCEFAs) are considered as one of the most promising soft actuators since they can provide reversible linear motion and are easily integrated or woven into complex structures to perform pre-programmed movements such as stretching, rotating, bending, and expanding. The research on LCEFAs mainly focuses on controllable preparation, structural design, and functional applications. This review, for the first time, provides a comprehensive and systematic review of recent advances in this important field by focusing on reversible thermal response LCEFAs. First, the thermal driving mechanism, and direct and indirect heating strategies of LCEFAs are systematically summarized and analyzed. Then, the fabrication methods and functional applications of LCEFAs are summarized and discussed. Finally, the challenges and technical difficulties that may hinder the performance improvement and large-scale production of LCEFAs are proposed, and the development opportunities of LCEFAs are prospected.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xuwang Tian
- College of Materials Science and Engineering, Key Laboratory of Automobile Materials Ministry of Education, Jilin University, Changchun, 130012, China
| | - Yongshi Guo
- College of Textile, Donghua University, Shanghai, 201620, China
| | - Jiaqi Zhang
- College of Materials Science and Engineering, Key Laboratory of Automobile Materials Ministry of Education, Jilin University, Changchun, 130012, China
| | - Orest M Ivasishin
- College of Materials Science and Engineering, Key Laboratory of Automobile Materials Ministry of Education, Jilin University, Changchun, 130012, China
| | - Jiru Jia
- School of Textile Garment and Design, Changshu Institute of Technology, Suzhou, Jiangsu, 215500, China
| | - Jianhua Yan
- College of Textile, Donghua University, Shanghai, 201620, China
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14
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Zhou X, Chen G, Jin B, Feng H, Chen Z, Fang M, Yang B, Xiao R, Xie T, Zheng N. Multimodal Autonomous Locomotion of Liquid Crystal Elastomer Soft Robot. ADVANCED SCIENCE (WEINHEIM, BADEN-WURTTEMBERG, GERMANY) 2024; 11:e2402358. [PMID: 38520731 PMCID: PMC11187929 DOI: 10.1002/advs.202402358] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/05/2024] [Revised: 03/12/2024] [Indexed: 03/25/2024]
Abstract
Self-oscillation phenomena observed in nature serve as extraordinary inspiration for designing synthetic autonomous moving systems. Converting self-oscillation into designable self-sustained locomotion can lead to a new generation of soft robots that require minimal/no external control. However, such locomotion is typically constrained to a single mode dictated by the constant surrounding environment. In this study, a liquid crystal elastomer (LCE) robot capable of achieving self-sustained multimodal locomotion, with the specific motion mode being controlled via substrate adhesion or remote light stimulation is presented. Specifically, the LCE is mechanically trained to undergo repeated snapping actions to ensure its self-sustained rolling motion in a constant gradient thermal field atop a hotplate. By further fine-tuning the substrate adhesion, the LCE robot exhibits reversible transitions between rolling and jumping modes. In addition, the rolling motion can be manipulated in real time through light stimulation to perform other diverse motions including turning, decelerating, stopping, backing up, and steering around complex obstacles. The principle of introducing an on-demand gate control offers a new venue for designing future autonomous soft robots.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaorui Zhou
- State Key Laboratory of Chemical EngineeringCollege of Chemical and Biological EngineeringZhejiang UniversityHangzhou310027China
| | - Guancong Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Chemical EngineeringCollege of Chemical and Biological EngineeringZhejiang UniversityHangzhou310027China
| | - Binjie Jin
- State Key Laboratory of Chemical EngineeringCollege of Chemical and Biological EngineeringZhejiang UniversityHangzhou310027China
| | - Haijun Feng
- State Key Laboratory of Chemical EngineeringCollege of Chemical and Biological EngineeringZhejiang UniversityHangzhou310027China
| | - Zike Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Fluid Power and Mechatronic SystemsKey Laboratory of Soft Machines and Smart Devices of Zhejiang ProvinceDepartment of Engineering MechanicsZhejiang UniversityHangzhou310027China
| | - Mengqi Fang
- State Key Laboratory of Chemical EngineeringCollege of Chemical and Biological EngineeringZhejiang UniversityHangzhou310027China
| | - Bo Yang
- State Key Laboratory of Chemical EngineeringCollege of Chemical and Biological EngineeringZhejiang UniversityHangzhou310027China
| | - Rui Xiao
- State Key Laboratory of Fluid Power and Mechatronic SystemsKey Laboratory of Soft Machines and Smart Devices of Zhejiang ProvinceDepartment of Engineering MechanicsZhejiang UniversityHangzhou310027China
| | - Tao Xie
- State Key Laboratory of Chemical EngineeringCollege of Chemical and Biological EngineeringZhejiang UniversityHangzhou310027China
| | - Ning Zheng
- State Key Laboratory of Chemical EngineeringCollege of Chemical and Biological EngineeringZhejiang UniversityHangzhou310027China
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15
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Waters JT, Balazs AC. Achieving controllable and reversible snap-through in pre-strained strips of liquid crystalline elastomers. SOFT MATTER 2024; 20:3256-3270. [PMID: 38512704 DOI: 10.1039/d4sm00037d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/23/2024]
Abstract
Deformable, elastic materials that buckle in response to external stimuli can display "snap-through", which involves a transition between different, stable buckled states. Snap-through produces a quick release of stored potential energy, and thus can provide fast actuation for soft robots and other flexible devices. Liquid crystalline elastomers (LCEs) exposed to light undergo a phase transition and a concomitant mechanical deformation, allowing control of snap-through for rapid, large amplitude actuation. Using both a semi-analytical model and finite element simulations, we focus on a thin LCE strip that is clamped at both ends and buckles due to an initially imposed strain. We show that when this clamped, strained sample is exposed to light, it produces controllable snap-through behavior, which can be regulated by varying the light intensity and the area of the sample targeted by light. In particular, this snap-through can be triggered in different directions, allowing the system to be reset and triggered multiple times. Removing the light source will cause the system to settle into one of two stable states, enabling the encoding and storage of information in the system. We also highlight a specific case where removing the light source removes the induced buckling and returns the material to an initially flat state. In this case, the system can be reset and form a new shape, allowing it to function as a rewriteable haptic interface.
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Affiliation(s)
- James T Waters
- University of Pittsburgh, Department of Chemical and Petroleum Engineering, USA.
| | - Anna C Balazs
- University of Pittsburgh, Department of Chemical and Petroleum Engineering, USA.
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16
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Kim YB, Yang S, Kim DS. Sidewinder-Inspired Self-Adjusting, Lateral-Rolling Soft Robots for Autonomous Terrain Exploration. ADVANCED SCIENCE (WEINHEIM, BADEN-WURTTEMBERG, GERMANY) 2024; 11:e2308350. [PMID: 38286667 PMCID: PMC11005722 DOI: 10.1002/advs.202308350] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/16/2023] [Revised: 01/05/2024] [Indexed: 01/31/2024]
Abstract
Helical structures of liquid crystal elastomers (LCEs) hold promise in soft robotics for self-regulated rolling motions. The understanding of their motion paths and potentials for terrain exploration remains limited. This study introduces a self-adjusting, lateral-rolling soft robot inspired by sidewinder snakes. The spring-like LCE helical filaments (HFs) autonomously respond to thermal cues, demonstrating dynamic and sustainable locomotion with adaptive rolling along non-linear paths. By fine-tuning the diameter, pitch, and modulus of the LCE HFs, and the environmental temperature, the movements of the LCE HFs, allowing for exploration of diverse terrains over a 600 cm2 area within a few minutes, can be programmed. LCE HFs are showcased to navigate through over nine obstacles, including maze escaping, terrain exploration, target hunting, and successfully surmounting staircases through adaptable rolling.
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Affiliation(s)
- Young Been Kim
- Department of Polymer EngineeringPukyong National University45 Yongso‐ro, Nam‐guBusan48513South Korea
| | - Shu Yang
- Department of Materials Science and EngineeringUniversity of Pennsylvania3231 Walnut StreetPhiladelphiaPA19104USA
| | - Dae Seok Kim
- Department of Polymer EngineeringPukyong National University45 Yongso‐ro, Nam‐guBusan48513South Korea
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17
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Nie ZZ, Wang M, Yang H. Self-sustainable autonomous soft actuators. Commun Chem 2024; 7:58. [PMID: 38503863 PMCID: PMC10951225 DOI: 10.1038/s42004-024-01142-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/27/2023] [Accepted: 03/07/2024] [Indexed: 03/21/2024] Open
Abstract
Self-sustainable autonomous locomotion is a non-equilibrium phenomenon and an advanced intelligence of soft-bodied organisms that exhibit the abilities of perception, feedback, decision-making, and self-sustainment. However, artificial self-sustaining architectures are often derived from algorithms and onboard modules of soft robots, resulting in complex fabrication, limited mobility, and low sensitivity. Self-sustainable autonomous soft actuators have emerged as naturally evolving systems that do not require human intervention. With shape-morphing materials integrating in their structural design, soft actuators can direct autonomous responses to complex environmental changes and achieve robust self-sustaining motions under sustained stimulation. This perspective article discusses the recent advances in self-sustainable autonomous soft actuators. Specifically, shape-morphing materials, motion characteristics, built-in negative feedback loops, and constant stimulus response patterns used in autonomous systems are summarized. Artificial self-sustaining autonomous concepts, modes, and deformation-induced functional applications of soft actuators are described. The current challenges and future opportunities for self-sustainable actuation systems are also discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhen-Zhou Nie
- School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, State Key Laboratory of Digital Medical Engineering, Institute of Advanced Materials, Southeast University, Nanjing, 211189, China
| | - Meng Wang
- School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, State Key Laboratory of Digital Medical Engineering, Institute of Advanced Materials, Southeast University, Nanjing, 211189, China
| | - Hong Yang
- School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, State Key Laboratory of Digital Medical Engineering, Institute of Advanced Materials, Southeast University, Nanjing, 211189, China.
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18
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Zhang C, Fei G, Lu X, Xia H, Zhao Y. Liquid Crystal Elastomer Artificial Tendrils with Asymmetric Core-Sheath Structure Showing Evolutionary Biomimetic Locomotion. ADVANCED MATERIALS (DEERFIELD BEACH, FLA.) 2024; 36:e2307210. [PMID: 37805917 DOI: 10.1002/adma.202307210] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2023] [Revised: 10/05/2023] [Indexed: 10/09/2023]
Abstract
The sophisticated and complex haptonastic movements in response to environmental-stimuli of living organisms have always fascinated scientists. However, how to fundamentally mimic the sophisticated hierarchical architectures of living organisms to provide the artificial counterparts with similar or even beyond-natural functions based on the underlying mechanism remains a major scientific challenge. Here, liquid crystal elastomer (LCE) artificial tendrils showing evolutionary biomimetic locomotion are developed following the structure-function principle that is used in nature to grow climbing plants. These elaborately designed tendril-like LCE actuators possess an asymmetric core-sheath architecture which shows a higher-to-lower transition in the degree of LC orientation from the sheath-to-core layer across the semi-ellipse cross-section. Upon heating and cooling, the LCE artificial tendril can undergo reversible tendril-like shape-morphing behaviors, such as helical coiling/winding, and perversion. The fundamental mechanism of the helical shape-morphing of the artificial tendril is revealed by using theoretical models and finite element simulations. Besides, the incorporation of metal-ligand coordination into the LCE network provides the artificial tendril with reconfigurable shape-morphing performances such as helical transitions and rotational deformations. Finally, the abilities of helical and rotational deformations are integrated into a new reprogrammed flagellum-like architecture to perform evolutionary locomotion mimicking the haptonastic movements of the natural flagellum.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chun Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Polymer Materials Engineering, Polymer Research Institute, Sichuan University, Chengdu, 610065, China
| | - Guoxia Fei
- State Key Laboratory of Polymer Materials Engineering, Polymer Research Institute, Sichuan University, Chengdu, 610065, China
| | - Xili Lu
- State Key Laboratory of Polymer Materials Engineering, Polymer Research Institute, Sichuan University, Chengdu, 610065, China
| | - Hesheng Xia
- State Key Laboratory of Polymer Materials Engineering, Polymer Research Institute, Sichuan University, Chengdu, 610065, China
| | - Yue Zhao
- Département de chimie Université de Sherbrooke Sherbrooke, Québec, J1K 2R1, Canada
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19
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Lee G, Park G, Park JG, Bak Y, Lee C, Yoon DK. Universal Strategy for Inorganic Nanoparticle Incorporation into Mesoporous Liquid Crystal Polymer Particles. ADVANCED MATERIALS (DEERFIELD BEACH, FLA.) 2024; 36:e2307388. [PMID: 37991422 DOI: 10.1002/adma.202307388] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/25/2023] [Revised: 10/19/2023] [Indexed: 11/23/2023]
Abstract
Developing inorganic-organic composite polymers necessitates a new strategy for effectively controlling shape and optical properties while accommodating guest materials, as conventional polymers primarily act as carriers that transport inorganic substances. Here, a universal approach is introduced utilizing mesoporous liquid crystal polymer particles (MLPs) to fabricate inorganic-organic composites. By leveraging the liquid crystal phase, morphology and optical properties are precisely controlled through the molecular-level arrangement of the host, here monomers. The controlled host material allows the synthesis of inorganic particles within the matrix or accommodation of presynthesized nano-inorganic particles, all while preserving the intrinsic properties of the host material. This composite material surpasses the functional capabilities of the polymer alone by sequentially integrating one or more inorganic materials, allowing for the incorporation of multiple functionalities within a single polymer particle. Furthermore, this approach effectively mitigates the drawbacks associated with guest materials resulting in a substantial enhancement of composite performance. The presented approach is anticipated to hold immense potential for various applications in optoelectronics, catalysis, and biosensing, addressing the evolving demands of the society.
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Affiliation(s)
- Geunjung Lee
- Department of Chemistry, Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology (KAIST), Daejeon, 34141, Republic of Korea
| | - Geonhyeong Park
- Department of Chemistry, Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology (KAIST), Daejeon, 34141, Republic of Korea
| | - Jesse G Park
- Department of Chemistry, Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology (KAIST), Daejeon, 34141, Republic of Korea
| | - Yeongseo Bak
- Department of Chemistry, Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology (KAIST), Daejeon, 34141, Republic of Korea
| | - Changjae Lee
- Department of Chemistry, Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology (KAIST), Daejeon, 34141, Republic of Korea
| | - Dong Ki Yoon
- Department of Chemistry, Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology (KAIST), Daejeon, 34141, Republic of Korea
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20
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Qi F, Li Y, Hong Y, Zhao Y, Qing H, Yin J. Defected twisted ring topology for autonomous periodic flip-spin-orbit soft robot. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2024; 121:e2312680121. [PMID: 38194462 PMCID: PMC10801889 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.2312680121] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/24/2023] [Accepted: 11/30/2023] [Indexed: 01/11/2024] Open
Abstract
Periodic spin-orbit motion is ubiquitous in nature, observed from electrons orbiting nuclei to spinning planets orbiting the Sun. Achieving autonomous periodic orbiting motions, along circular and noncircular paths, in soft mobile robotics is crucial for adaptive and intelligent exploration of unknown environments-a grand challenge yet to be accomplished. Here, we report leveraging a closed-loop twisted ring topology with a defect for an autonomous soft robot capable of achieving periodic spin-orbiting motions with programmed circular and re-programmed irregular-shaped trajectories. Constructed by bonding a twisted liquid crystal elastomer ribbon into a closed-loop ring topology, the robot exhibits three coupled periodic self-motions in response to constant temperature or constant light sources: inside-out flipping, self-spinning around the ring center, and self-orbiting around a point outside the ring. The coupled spinning and orbiting motions share the same direction and period. The spinning or orbiting direction depends on the twisting chirality, while the orbital radius and period are determined by the twisted ring geometry and thermal actuation. The flip-spin and orbiting motions arise from the twisted ring topology and a bonding site defect that breaks the force symmetry, respectively. By utilizing the twisting-encoded autonomous flip-spin-orbit motions, we showcase the robot's potential for intelligently mapping the geometric boundaries of unknown confined spaces, including convex shapes like circles, squares, triangles, and pentagons and concaves shapes with multi-robots, as well as health monitoring of unknown confined spaces with boundary damages.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fangjie Qi
- Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC27695
| | - Yanbin Li
- Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC27695
| | - Yaoye Hong
- Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC27695
| | - Yao Zhao
- Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC27695
| | - Haitao Qing
- Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC27695
| | - Jie Yin
- Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC27695
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