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Martini F, Kounnamas C, Goodale E, Mammides C. Examining the co-occurrences of human threats within terrestrial protected areas. Ambio 2024; 53:592-603. [PMID: 38273093 PMCID: PMC10920590 DOI: 10.1007/s13280-023-01966-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/09/2022] [Revised: 05/02/2023] [Accepted: 11/23/2023] [Indexed: 01/27/2024]
Abstract
Human threats to biodiversity are prevalent within protected areas (PAs), undermining their effectiveness in halting biodiversity loss. Certain threats tend to co-occur, resulting in amplified cumulative impact through synergistic effects. However, it remains unclear which threats are related the most. We analyzed a dataset of 71 human threats in 18 013 terrestrial PAs of the European Union's Natura 2000 network, using a Joint Species Distribution Modelling approach, to assess the threats' co-occurrence patterns and potential drivers. Overall, threats were more frequently correlated positively than negatively. Threats related to agriculture and urbanization were correlated strongly with most other threats. Approximately 70% of the variance in our model was explained by country-specific factors, indicating the importance of local drivers. Minimizing the negative impact of key threats can likely reduce the impact of related threats. However, more research is needed to understand better the relationships among threats and, importantly, their combined impact on biodiversity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Francesco Martini
- Botany Department, School of Natural Sciences, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland.
- Department of Forest Ecology, Faculty of Forestry and Wood Sciences, Czech University of Life Sciences Prague, Prague, Czech Republic.
| | - Constantinos Kounnamas
- Nature Conservation Unit, Frederick University, 7, Yianni Frederickou Street, Pallouriotissa, 1036, Nicosia, Cyprus
| | - Eben Goodale
- Department of Health and Environmental Science, Xi'an Jiaotong Liverpool University, 8 Chongwen Road, Suzhou Industrial Park, Suzhou, 215123, Jiangsu, China
| | - Christos Mammides
- Nature Conservation Unit, Frederick University, 7, Yianni Frederickou Street, Pallouriotissa, 1036, Nicosia, Cyprus
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Pyšek P, Hulme PE, Simberloff D, Bacher S, Blackburn TM, Carlton JT, Dawson W, Essl F, Foxcroft LC, Genovesi P, Jeschke JM, Kühn I, Liebhold AM, Mandrak NE, Meyerson LA, Pauchard A, Pergl J, Roy HE, Seebens H, van Kleunen M, Vilà M, Wingfield MJ, Richardson DM. Scientists' warning on invasive alien species. Biol Rev Camb Philos Soc 2020; 95:1511-1534. [PMID: 32588508 PMCID: PMC7687187 DOI: 10.1111/brv.12627] [Citation(s) in RCA: 440] [Impact Index Per Article: 110.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/08/2019] [Revised: 05/30/2020] [Accepted: 06/03/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Biological invasions are a global consequence of an increasingly connected world and the rise in human population size. The numbers of invasive alien species – the subset of alien species that spread widely in areas where they are not native, affecting the environment or human livelihoods – are increasing. Synergies with other global changes are exacerbating current invasions and facilitating new ones, thereby escalating the extent and impacts of invaders. Invasions have complex and often immense long‐term direct and indirect impacts. In many cases, such impacts become apparent or problematic only when invaders are well established and have large ranges. Invasive alien species break down biogeographic realms, affect native species richness and abundance, increase the risk of native species extinction, affect the genetic composition of native populations, change native animal behaviour, alter phylogenetic diversity across communities, and modify trophic networks. Many invasive alien species also change ecosystem functioning and the delivery of ecosystem services by altering nutrient and contaminant cycling, hydrology, habitat structure, and disturbance regimes. These biodiversity and ecosystem impacts are accelerating and will increase further in the future. Scientific evidence has identified policy strategies to reduce future invasions, but these strategies are often insufficiently implemented. For some nations, notably Australia and New Zealand, biosecurity has become a national priority. There have been long‐term successes, such as eradication of rats and cats on increasingly large islands and biological control of weeds across continental areas. However, in many countries, invasions receive little attention. Improved international cooperation is crucial to reduce the impacts of invasive alien species on biodiversity, ecosystem services, and human livelihoods. Countries can strengthen their biosecurity regulations to implement and enforce more effective management strategies that should also address other global changes that interact with invasions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Petr Pyšek
- Czech Academy of Sciences, Institute of Botany, Department of Invasion Ecology, Průhonice, CZ-252 43, Czech Republic.,Department of Ecology, Faculty of Science, Charles University, Viničná 7, Prague, CZ-128 44, Czech Republic.,Centre for Invasion Biology, Department of Botany & Zoology, Stellenbosch University, Matieland, 7602, South Africa
| | - Philip E Hulme
- Bio-Protection Research Centre, Lincoln University, Canterbury, New Zealand
| | - Dan Simberloff
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN, U.S.A
| | - Sven Bacher
- Department of Biology, University of Fribourg, Fribourg, Switzerland
| | - Tim M Blackburn
- Centre for Invasion Biology, Department of Botany & Zoology, Stellenbosch University, Matieland, 7602, South Africa.,Centre for Biodiversity and Environment Research, Department of Genetics, Evolution, and Environment, University College London, London, WC1E 6BT, U.K.,Institute of Zoology, Zoological Society of London, Regent's Park, London, NW1 4RY, U.K
| | - James T Carlton
- Maritime Studies Program, Williams College - Mystic Seaport, 75 Greenmanville, Mystic, CT, 06355, U.S.A
| | - Wayne Dawson
- Department of Biosciences, Durham University, South Road, Durham, DH1 3LE, U.K
| | - Franz Essl
- Centre for Invasion Biology, Department of Botany & Zoology, Stellenbosch University, Matieland, 7602, South Africa.,Division of Conservation Biology, Vegetation and Landscape Ecology, Department of Botany and Biodiversity Research, University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Llewellyn C Foxcroft
- Centre for Invasion Biology, Department of Botany & Zoology, Stellenbosch University, Matieland, 7602, South Africa.,Conservation Services, South African National Parks, Private Bag X402, Skukuza, 1350, South Africa
| | - Piero Genovesi
- Centre for Invasion Biology, Department of Botany & Zoology, Stellenbosch University, Matieland, 7602, South Africa.,ISPRA, Institute for Environmental Protection and Research and Chair IUCN SSC Invasive Species Specialist Group, Rome, Italy
| | - Jonathan M Jeschke
- Leibniz-Institute of Freshwater Ecology and Inland Fisheries (IGB), Müggelseedamm 310, Berlin, 12587, Germany.,Institute of Biology, Freie Universität Berlin, Königin-Luise-Str. 1-3, Berlin, 14195, Germany.,Berlin-Brandenburg Institute of Advanced Biodiversity Research (BBIB), Königin-Luise-Str. 2-4, Berlin, 14195, Germany
| | - Ingolf Kühn
- Department Community Ecology, Helmholtz Centre for Environmental Research - UFZ, Theodor-Lieser-Str. 4, Halle, 06120, Germany.,Geobotany & Botanical Garden, Martin Luther University Halle-Wittenberg, Am Kirchtor 1, Halle, 06108, Germany.,German Centre for Integrative Biodiversity Research (iDiv) Halle-Jena-Leipzig, Deutscher Platz 5e, Leipzig, 04103, Germany
| | - Andrew M Liebhold
- US Forest Service Northern Research Station, 180 Canfield St., Morgantown, West Virginia, U.S.A.,Faculty of Forestry and Wood Sciences, Czech University of Life Sciences Prague, Prague, CZ-165 00, Czech Republic
| | - Nicholas E Mandrak
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Toronto, 1265 Military Trail, Toronto, Ontario, M1C 1A4, Canada
| | - Laura A Meyerson
- Department of Natural Resources Science, The University of Rhode Island, Kingston, Rhode Island, 02881, U.S.A
| | - Aníbal Pauchard
- Facultad de Ciencias Forestales, Universidad de Concepción, Concepción, Chile.,Institute of Ecology and Biodiversity, Santiago, Chile
| | - Jan Pergl
- Czech Academy of Sciences, Institute of Botany, Department of Invasion Ecology, Průhonice, CZ-252 43, Czech Republic
| | - Helen E Roy
- U.K. Centre for Ecology & Hydrology, Wallingford, OX10 8BB, U.K
| | - Hanno Seebens
- Senckenberg Biodiversity and Climate Research Centre (SBiK-F), Senckenberganlage 25, Frankfurt am Main, 60325, Germany
| | - Mark van Kleunen
- Ecology, Department of Biology, University of Konstanz, Universitätsstrasse 10, Constance, 78457, Germany.,Zhejiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Plant Evolutionary Ecology and Conservation, Taizhou University, Taizhou, 318000, China
| | - Montserrat Vilà
- Estación Biológica de Doñana (EBD-CSIC), Avd. Américo Vespucio 26, Isla de la Cartuja, Sevilla, 41092, Spain.,Department of Plant Biology and Ecology, University of Sevilla, Sevilla, Spain
| | - Michael J Wingfield
- Forestry and Agricultural Biotechnology Institute (FABI), University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa
| | - David M Richardson
- Centre for Invasion Biology, Department of Botany & Zoology, Stellenbosch University, Matieland, 7602, South Africa
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Abstract
Protected areas are the cornerstone of biodiversity conservation. However, alien species invasion is an increasing threat to biodiversity, and the extent to which protected areas worldwide are resistant to incursions of alien species remains poorly understood. Here, we investigate establishment by 894 terrestrial alien animals from 11 taxonomic groups including vertebrates and invertebrates across 199,957 protected areas at the global scale. We find that <10% of protected areas are home to any of the alien animals, but there is at least one established population within 10-100 km of the boundaries of 89%-99% of protected areas, while >95% of protected areas are environmentally suitable for establishment. Higher alien richness is observed in IUCN category-II national parks supposedly with stricter protection, and in larger protected areas with higher human footprint and more recent designation. Our results demonstrate that protected areas provide important protection from biological invasions, but invasions may become an increasingly dominant problem in the near future. Safeguarding protected areas from invasive species is recognised as a global conservation objective. Here, Liu et al. analyse the occurrence of terrestrial alien animal invaders in protected areas and potential drivers globally, suggesting an impending risk for uninvaded protected areas in absence of preventive actions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xuan Liu
- Key Laboratory of Animal Ecology and Conservation Biology, Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 1 Beichen West Road, Chaoyang, 100101, Beijing, China.
| | - Tim M Blackburn
- Centre for Biodiversity and Environment Research, Department of Genetics, Evolution & Environment, University Colledge London, Gower Street, London, WC1E 6BT, UK.,Institute of Zoology, Zoological Society of London, Regent's Park, London, NW1 4RY, UK
| | - Tianjian Song
- Key Laboratory of Animal Ecology and Conservation Biology, Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 1 Beichen West Road, Chaoyang, 100101, Beijing, China.,University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, 100049, Beijing, China
| | - Xuyu Wang
- Institute of Physical Science and Information Technology, Anhui University, Hefei, 230601, China
| | - Cong Huang
- School of Life Science, South China Normal University, Guangzhou, 510631, China
| | - Yiming Li
- Key Laboratory of Animal Ecology and Conservation Biology, Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 1 Beichen West Road, Chaoyang, 100101, Beijing, China. .,University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, 100049, Beijing, China.
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