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Jacob C, Micallef SA, Melotto M. Editorial: Plant and human pathogen interactions: gaining insights into the impact of environmental and crop management factors. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2024; 15:1414227. [PMID: 38774218 PMCID: PMC11106785 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2024.1414227] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/08/2024] [Accepted: 04/29/2024] [Indexed: 05/24/2024]
Affiliation(s)
- Cristián Jacob
- Departamento de Ciencias Vegetales, Facultad de Agronomía y Sistemas Naturales, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Santiago, Chile
| | - Shirley A. Micallef
- Department of Plant Science and Landscape Architecture, University of Maryland, College Park, MD, United States
- Centre for Food Safety and Security Systems, University of Maryland, College Park, MD, United States
| | - Maeli Melotto
- Department of Plant Sciences, University of California, Davis, Davis, CA, United States
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Sunil S, Murphy SI, Orsi RH, Ivanek R, Wiedmann M. Strain-specific Growth Parameters are Important to Accurately Model Bacterial Growth on Baby Spinach in Simulation Models. J Food Prot 2024; 87:100270. [PMID: 38552796 DOI: 10.1016/j.jfp.2024.100270] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2023] [Revised: 03/04/2024] [Accepted: 03/23/2024] [Indexed: 04/14/2024]
Abstract
Digital tools to predict produce shelf life have the potential to reduce food waste and improve consumer satisfaction. To address this need, we (i) performed an observational study on the microbial quality of baby spinach, (ii) completed growth experiments of bacteria that are representative of the baby spinach microbiota, and (iii) developed an initial simulation model of bacterial growth on baby spinach. Our observational data showed that the predominant genera found on baby spinach were Pseudomonas, Pantoea and Exiguobacterium. Rifampicin-resistant mutants (rifR mutants) of representative bacterial subtypes were subsequently generated to obtain strain-specific growth parameters on baby spinach. These experiments showed that: (i) it is difficult to select rifR mutants that do not have fitness costs affecting growth (9 of 15 rifR mutants showed substantial differences in growth, compared to their corresponding wild-type strain) and (ii) based on estimates from primary growth models, the mean (geometric) maximum population of rifR mutants on baby spinach (7.6 log10 CFU/g, at 6°C) appears lower than that of the spinach microbiota (9.6 log10 CFU/g, at 6°C), even if rifR mutants did not have substantial growth-related fitness costs. Thus, a simulation model, parameterized with the data obtained here as well as literature data on home refrigeration temperatures, underestimated bacterial growth on baby spinach. The root mean square error of the simulation's output, compared against data from the observational study, was 1.11 log10 CFU/g. Sensitivity analysis was used to identify key parameters (e.g., strain maximum population) that impact the simulation model's output, allowing for prioritization of future data collection to improve the simulation model. Overall, this study provides a roadmap for the development of models to predict bacterial growth on leafy vegetables with strain-specific parameters and suggests that additional data are required to improve these models.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sriya Sunil
- Department of Food Science, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA
| | - Sarah I Murphy
- Department of Population Medicine and Diagnostic Sciences, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA
| | - Renato H Orsi
- Department of Food Science, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA
| | - Renata Ivanek
- Department of Population Medicine and Diagnostic Sciences, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA
| | - Martin Wiedmann
- Department of Food Science, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA.
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Ding Q, Gu G, Nou X, Micallef SA. Cultivar was more influential than bacterial strain and other experimental factors in recovery of Escherichia coli O157:H7 populations from inoculated live Romaine lettuce plants. Microbiol Spectr 2024; 12:e0376723. [PMID: 38363139 PMCID: PMC10986467 DOI: 10.1128/spectrum.03767-23] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/24/2023] [Accepted: 01/22/2024] [Indexed: 02/17/2024] Open
Abstract
The varied choice of bacterial strain, plant cultivar, and method used to inoculate, retrieve, and enumerate Escherichia coli O157:H7 from live plants could affect comparability among studies evaluating lettuce-enterobacterial interactions. Cultivar, bacterial strain, incubation time, leaf side inoculated, and sample processing method were assessed for their influence in recovering and quantifying E. coli O157:H7 from live Romaine lettuce. Cultivar exerted the strongest effect on E. coli O157:H7 counts, which held up even when cultivar was considered in interactions with other factors. Recovery from the popularly grown green Romaine "Rio Bravo" was higher than from the red variety "Outredgeous." Other modulating variables were incubation time, strain, and leaf side inoculated. Sample processing method was not significant. Incubation for 24 hours post-lettuce inoculation yielded greater counts than 48 hours, but was affected by lettuce cultivar, bacterial strain, and leaf side inoculated. Higher counts obtained for strain EDL933 compared to a lettuce outbreak strain 2705C emphasized the importance of selecting relevant strains for the system being studied. Inoculating the abaxial side of leaves gave higher counts than adaxial surface inoculation, although this factor interacted with strain and incubation period. Our findings highlight the importance of studying interactions between appropriate bacterial strains and plant cultivars for more relevant research results, and of standardizing inoculation and incubation procedures. The strong effect of cultivar exerted on the E. coli O157:H7-lettuce association supports the need to start reporting cultivar information for illness outbreaks to facilitate the identification and study of plant traits that impact food safety risk.IMPORTANCEThe contamination of Romaine lettuce with Escherichia coli O157:H7 has been linked to multiple foodborne disease outbreaks, but variability in the methods used to evaluate E. coli O157:H7 association with live lettuce plants complicates the comparability of different studies. In this study, various experimental variables and sample processing methods for recovering and quantifying E. coli O157:H7 from live Romaine lettuce were assessed. Cultivar was found to exert the strongest influence on E. coli O157:H7 retrieval from lettuce. Other modulating factors were bacterial incubation time on plants, strain, and leaf side inoculated, while sample processing method had no impact. Our findings highlight the importance of selecting relevant cultivars and strains, and of standardizing inoculation and incubation procedures, in these types of assessments. Moreover, results support the need to start reporting cultivars implicated in foodborne illness outbreaks to facilitate the identification and study of plant traits that impact food safety risk.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qiao Ding
- Department of Plant Science and Landscape Architecture, University of Maryland, College Park, Maryland, USA
| | - Ganyu Gu
- Environmental Microbial and Food Safety Laboratory, USDA ARS, Beltsville, Maryland, USA
| | - Xiangwu Nou
- Environmental Microbial and Food Safety Laboratory, USDA ARS, Beltsville, Maryland, USA
| | - Shirley A. Micallef
- Department of Plant Science and Landscape Architecture, University of Maryland, College Park, Maryland, USA
- Center for Food Safety and Security Systems, University of Maryland, College Park, Maryland, USA
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Hopper AL, Hudson CL, Klair D, Ding Q, Gao Z, Jha A, Bryan A, Tikekar RV, Coolong T, Dunn LL, Micallef SA. Rain splash-mediated dispersal of Escherichia coli from fecal deposits to field-grown lettuce in the mid- and south Atlantic U.S. regions is affected by mulch type. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2024; 15:1370495. [PMID: 38567141 PMCID: PMC10985140 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2024.1370495] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/14/2024] [Accepted: 02/29/2024] [Indexed: 04/04/2024]
Abstract
Introduction Wildlife feces can contaminate vegetables when enteric bacteria are released by rain and splashed onto crops. Regulations require growers to identify and not harvest produce that is likely contaminated, but U.S. federal standards do not define dimensions for no-harvest zones. Moreover, mulching, used to retain soil moisture and maximize crop yield may impact rain-mediated bacterial dispersal from feces. Methods To assess Escherichia coli dissemination from a fecal point source to lettuce grown on various mulches, lettuce cv. 'Magenta' was transplanted into raised beds with plastic, biodegradable plastic, straw, or left uncovered at field sites in Maryland and Georgia. Eleven days post-transplant, 10 g of rabbit manure spiked with ~8 log CFU g-1 E. coli were deposited in each bed. One day following natural or simulated rain events, lettuce was sampled along 1.5 m transects on either side of fecal deposits. Lettuce-associated E. coli was semi-quantified with an MPN assay and dependence on fecal age (stale or fresh), lettuce age (baby leaf or mature head), distance from point source, mulch and post-rain days were statistically evaluated. Results Distance (p<0.001), fecal age (p<0.001) and mulch (p<0.01) were factors for E. coli transfer from point source to lettuce. The highest and lowest E. coli estimates were measured from lettuce grown on biodegradable plastic and straw, respectively, with a 2-log MPN difference (p<0.001). Mulch and distance were also significant factors in E. coli recovery 3 days post-rain (both p<0.001), where plastic mulches differed from bare ground and straw (p<0.01). For all treatments, fewer E. coli were retrieved from lettuce at 0.3 m, 3 days post-rain compared to 1 day (p<0.001). Fitting the data to a Weibull Model predicated that a 7-log reduction in E. coli from fecal levels would be achieved at 1.2-1.4 m from the point source on plastic mulches, 0.75 m on bare soil (p<0.05) and 0.43 m on straw (p<0.01). Discussion Straw and bare ground limited rain-mediated E. coli dispersal from feces to lettuce compared to plastic mulches. Fecal age was negatively associated with E. coli dispersal. These findings can inform harvesting recommendations for measures related to animal intrusion in vegetable production areas.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adam L. Hopper
- Department of Plant Science and Landscape Architecture, University of Maryland, College Park, MD, United States
| | - Claire L. Hudson
- Department of Plant Science and Landscape Architecture, University of Maryland, College Park, MD, United States
| | - Diksha Klair
- Department of Plant Science and Landscape Architecture, University of Maryland, College Park, MD, United States
| | - Qiao Ding
- Department of Plant Science and Landscape Architecture, University of Maryland, College Park, MD, United States
| | - Zhujun Gao
- Department of Nutrition and Food Science, University of Maryland, College Park, MD, United States
| | - Aprajeeta Jha
- Department of Nutrition and Food Science, University of Maryland, College Park, MD, United States
| | - Austin Bryan
- Department of Food Science and Technology, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, United States
| | - Rohan V. Tikekar
- Department of Nutrition and Food Science, University of Maryland, College Park, MD, United States
| | - Timothy Coolong
- Department of Horticulture, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, United States
| | - Laurel L. Dunn
- Department of Food Science and Technology, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, United States
| | - Shirley A. Micallef
- Department of Plant Science and Landscape Architecture, University of Maryland, College Park, MD, United States
- Center for Food Safety and Security Systems, University of Maryland, College Park, MD, United States
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Moreira J, McCarter K, Benitez JA, Fontenot K, King JM, Adhikari A. Effect of Type of Mulch on Microbial Food Safety Risk on Cucumbers Irrigated with Contaminated Water. J Food Prot 2023; 86:100164. [PMID: 37739314 DOI: 10.1016/j.jfp.2023.100164] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/29/2023] [Revised: 08/29/2023] [Accepted: 09/17/2023] [Indexed: 09/24/2023]
Abstract
Mulches are used to block light and retain soil moisture which may affect the survival of bacterial pathogens on soil. This study examined the effectiveness of different types of mulches to minimize microbial risk from contaminated water used for irrigation of cucumbers. A production bed of 120 ft2 with 18 beds (30 ft long) covered with five different types of mulch (paper, paper with fertilizer incorporated (PF), maize-based mulch, biodegradable plastic covering, and conventional plastic) including three beds with no cover was planted with Dasher 2 Variety cucumber. Soil samples from each bed were collected for the first five weeks to examine natural E. coli and coliforms. Well water contaminated with or without nalidixic acid-resistant mutant of E. coli (8 Log CFU/mL) was used for drip irrigation for 7 days before harvesting. Prior to irrigation with contaminated water, naturally present E. coli and coliform in the soil samples with or without mulch were in the range of 3.45-3.78 Log CFU/g and 4.18-5.31 Log CFU/g, respectively. E. coli levels on cucumbers harvested from mulched beds and irrigated with contaminated irrigation water had significantly higher (P < 0.05) levels of E. coli as compared with samples from similar beds irrigated with noncontaminated water. However, Cucumber, harvested within each irrigation water quality were not significantly different regardless of the type of mulch with E. coli levels from 1.72 to 3.30 Log CFU/cm2 (contaminated water) and 0.28-1.86 Log CFU/cm2 (noncontaminated water). A significant die-off of inoculated E. coli was observed on cucumber within 3 days (>1.17 Log CFU/cm2) and >1.38 Log CFU/cm2 after 4 days. Beds with maize mulch were effective on minimizing E. coli contamination on cucumber from contaminated irrigation water.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juan Moreira
- School of Nutrition and Food Sciences, Louisiana State University AgCenter, 261 Knapp Hall, Baton Rouge, LA 70803, USA
| | - Kevin McCarter
- School of Nutrition and Food Sciences, Louisiana State University AgCenter, 261 Knapp Hall, Baton Rouge, LA 70803, USA
| | - Julysa Abril Benitez
- School of Nutrition and Food Sciences, Louisiana State University AgCenter, 261 Knapp Hall, Baton Rouge, LA 70803, USA
| | - Kathryn Fontenot
- School of Nutrition and Food Sciences, Louisiana State University AgCenter, 261 Knapp Hall, Baton Rouge, LA 70803, USA
| | - Joan M King
- School of Nutrition and Food Sciences, Louisiana State University AgCenter, 261 Knapp Hall, Baton Rouge, LA 70803, USA
| | - Achyut Adhikari
- School of Nutrition and Food Sciences, Louisiana State University AgCenter, 261 Knapp Hall, Baton Rouge, LA 70803, USA.
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Murphy CM, Hamilton AM, Waterman K, Rock C, Schaffner DW, Strawn LK. Efficacy of Peracetic Acid and Chlorine on the Reduction of Shiga Toxin-producing Escherichia coli and a Nonpathogenic E. coli Strain in Preharvest Agricultural Water. J Food Prot 2023; 86:100172. [PMID: 37783289 DOI: 10.1016/j.jfp.2023.100172] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/29/2023] [Revised: 09/24/2023] [Accepted: 09/27/2023] [Indexed: 10/04/2023]
Abstract
Produce-borne outbreaks of Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli (STEC) linked to preharvest water emphasize the need for efficacious water treatment options. This study quantified reductions of STEC and generic E. coli in preharvest agricultural water using commercially available sanitizers. Water was collected from two sources in Virginia (pond, river) and inoculated with either a seven-strain STEC panel or environmental generic E. coli strain TVS 353 (∼9 log10 CFU/100 mL). Triplicate inoculated water samples were equilibrated to 12 or 32°C and treated with peracetic acid (PAA) or chlorine (Cl) [low (PAA:6ppm, Cl:2-4 ppm) or high (PAA:10 ppm, Cl:10-12 ppm) residual concentrations] for an allotted contact time (1, 5, or 10 min). Strains were enumerated, and a log-linear model was used to characterize how treatment combinations influenced reductions. All Cl treatment combinations achieved a ≥3 log10 CFU/100 mL reduction, regardless of strain (3.43 ± 0.25 to 7.05 ± 0.00 log10 CFU/100 mL). Approximately 80% (19/24) and 67% (16/24) of PAA treatment combinations achieved a ≥3 log10 CFU/100 mL for STEC and E. coli TVS 353, respectively. The log-linear model showed contact time (10 > 5 > 1 min) and sanitizer type (Cl > PAA) had the greatest impact on STEC and E. coli TVS 353 reductions (p < 0.001). E. coli TVS 353 in water samples was more resistant to sanitizer treatment (p < 0.001) indicating applicability as a good surrogate. Results demonstrated Cl and PAA can be effective agricultural water treatment strategies when sanitizer chemistry is managed. These data will assist with the development of in-field validation studies and may identify suitable candidates for the registration of antimicrobial pesticide products for use against foodborne pathogens in preharvest agricultural water treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Claire M Murphy
- Department of Food Science and Technology, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA, USA; School of Food Science, Washington State University - Irrigated Agriculture Research and Extension Center, Prosser, WA, USA
| | - Alexis M Hamilton
- Department of Food Science and Technology, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA, USA
| | - Kim Waterman
- Department of Food Science and Technology, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA, USA
| | - Channah Rock
- Department of Environmental Science, University of Arizona - Maricopa Agricultural Center, Maricopa, AZ, USA
| | - Donald W Schaffner
- Department of Food Science, Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey, New Brunswick, NJ, USA
| | - Laura K Strawn
- Department of Food Science and Technology, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA, USA.
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Bardsley CA, Chasteen K, Shapiro-Ilan D, Bock CH, Niemira BA, Kumar GD. Transfer of generic Escherichia coli and attenuated Salmonella enterica Typhimurium from the soil to the surface of in-shell pecans during harvest. Heliyon 2023; 9:e19676. [PMID: 37809630 PMCID: PMC10558922 DOI: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2023.e19676] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/07/2023] [Revised: 08/18/2023] [Accepted: 08/30/2023] [Indexed: 10/10/2023] Open
Abstract
During harvest pecan nuts are at risk of contamination with foodborne pathogens from extended contact with the ground. The objective of this study was to determine the potential transfer of Escherichia coli and Salmonella from the ground to in-shell pecans during the harvesting process. Plots (2 m2) were sprayed with 1 L of a rifampicin (rif) resistant strain of either E. coli TVS 353 or an attenuated Salmonella Typhimurium inoculum at a low (∼4 log CFU/ml), mid (∼6 log CFU/ml) or high (∼8 log CFU/ml) concentrations. The following day, nuts were mechanically harvested and samples from each plot were collected at 1 min, 4 h, and 24 h. Samples were enumerated for Salmonella and E. coli on tryptic soy agar supplemented with rif. The Salmonella levels in the soil from the inoculated plots were 2.0 ± 0.3, 4.1 ± 0.1, and 6.4 ± 0.2 log CFU/g for the low, mid, and high inocula, respectively. The E. coli levels in the soil from the inoculated plots were 1.5 ± 0.4, 3.7 ± 0.3, and 5.8 ± 0.1 log CFU/g for the low, mid, and high inocula, respectively. There was a significant difference in the average daily rainfall among the three trials. Trial 3 received 23.8 ± 9.2 cm, while trials 1 and 2 received much less (0.1 ± 0.1 0.0 ± 0.0 cm, respectively). Inoculation concentration and trial were significant (P<0.05) factors that influenced the transfer of E. coli and Salmonella to pecans. For the high inoculum treatment, bacterial transfer to pecans ranged from 0.7 ± 0.3 to 4.1 ± 0.2 for E. coli and 1.3 ± 0.7 to 4.3 ± 0.4 log CFU/g for Salmonella. For the medium inoculum treatment, transfer ranged from <0.3 to 1.5 ± 0.1 for E. coli and <0.3 to 1.9 ± 0.2 log CFU/g for Salmonella. For the low treatment, transfer ranged from <0.3 to 0.4 ± 0.2 and <0.3 to 0.5 ± 0.1 log CFU/g for E. coli and Salmonella, respectively. These results show the need for implementing agricultural practices that prevent potential transfer of foodborne pathogens onto the surface of in-shell pecans during harvest.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cameron A. Bardsley
- USDA-ARS Southeastern Fruit and Tree Nut Research Station, 21 Dunbar Rd. Byron, GA. 31008, USA
| | - Kaicie Chasteen
- USDA-ARS Southeastern Fruit and Tree Nut Research Station, 21 Dunbar Rd. Byron, GA. 31008, USA
| | - David Shapiro-Ilan
- USDA-ARS Southeastern Fruit and Tree Nut Research Station, 21 Dunbar Rd. Byron, GA. 31008, USA
| | - Clive H. Bock
- USDA-ARS Southeastern Fruit and Tree Nut Research Station, 21 Dunbar Rd. Byron, GA. 31008, USA
| | - Brendan A. Niemira
- USDA-ARS Food Safety and Intervention Technologies Research Unit, Eastern Regional Research Center, 600 E. Mermaid Ln., Wyndmoor, Pa. 19038, USA
| | - Govindaraj Dev Kumar
- Center for Food Safety, College of Agriculture and Environmental Science, University of Georgia. 350 Woodroof Dr., Griffin, GA 30223, USA
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Brandl MT, Ivanek R, Allende A, Munther DS. Predictive Population Dynamics of Escherichia coli O157:H7 and Salmonella enterica on Plants: a Mechanistic Mathematical Model Based on Weather Parameters and Bacterial State. Appl Environ Microbiol 2023; 89:e0070023. [PMID: 37347166 PMCID: PMC10370311 DOI: 10.1128/aem.00700-23] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/01/2023] [Accepted: 05/24/2023] [Indexed: 06/23/2023] Open
Abstract
Weather affects key aspects of bacterial behavior on plants but has not been extensively investigated as a tool to assess risk of crop contamination with human foodborne pathogens. A novel mechanistic model informed by weather factors and bacterial state was developed to predict population dynamics on leafy vegetables and tested against published data tracking Escherichia coli O157:H7 (EcO157) and Salmonella enterica populations on lettuce and cilantro plants. The model utilizes temperature, radiation, and dew point depression to characterize pathogen growth and decay rates. Additionally, the model incorporates the population level effect of bacterial physiological state dynamics in the phyllosphere in terms of the duration and frequency of specific weather parameters. The model accurately predicted EcO157 and S. enterica population sizes on lettuce and cilantro leaves in the laboratory under various conditions of temperature, relative humidity, light intensity, and cycles of leaf wetness and dryness. Importantly, the model successfully predicted EcO157 population dynamics on 4-week-old romaine lettuce plants under variable weather conditions in nearly all field trials. Prediction of initial EcO157 population decay rates after inoculation of 6-week-old romaine plants in the same field study was better than that of long-term survival. This suggests that future augmentation of the model should consider plant age and species morphology by including additional physical parameters. Our results highlight the potential of a comprehensive weather-based model in predicting contamination risk in the field. Such a modeling approach would additionally be valuable for timing field sampling in quality control to ensure the microbial safety of produce. IMPORTANCE Fruits and vegetables are important sources of foodborne disease. Novel approaches to improve the microbial safety of produce are greatly lacking. Given that bacterial behavior on plant surfaces is highly dependent on weather factors, risk assessment informed by meteorological data may be an effective tool to integrate into strategies to prevent crop contamination. A mathematical model was developed to predict the population trends of pathogenic E. coli and S. enterica, two major causal agents of foodborne disease associated with produce, on leaves. Our model is based on weather parameters and rates of switching between the active (growing) and inactive (nongrowing) bacterial state resulting from prevailing environmental conditions on leaf surfaces. We demonstrate that the model has the ability to accurately predict dynamics of enteric pathogens on leaves and, notably, sizes of populations of pathogenic E. coli over time after inoculation onto the leaves of young lettuce plants in the field.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria T. Brandl
- Produce Safety and Microbiology Research Unit, Agricultural Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Albany, California, USA
| | - Renata Ivanek
- Department of Population Medicine and Diagnostic Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York, USA
| | - Ana Allende
- Research Group of Microbiology and Quality of Fruit and Vegetables, Food Science and Technology Department, CEBAS-CSIC, Murcia, Spain
| | - Daniel S. Munther
- Department of Mathematics and Statistics, Cleveland State University, Cleveland, Ohio, USA
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A Validated Preharvest Sampling Simulation Shows that Sampling Plans with a Larger Number of Randomly Located Samples Perform Better than Typical Sampling Plans in Detecting Representative Point-Source and Widespread Hazards in Leafy Green Fields. Appl Environ Microbiol 2022; 88:e0101522. [PMID: 36377948 PMCID: PMC9746328 DOI: 10.1128/aem.01015-22] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Commercial leafy greens customers often require a negative preharvest pathogen test, typically by compositing 60 produce sample grabs of 150 to 375 g total mass from lots of various acreages. This study developed a preharvest sampling Monte Carlo simulation, validated it against literature and experimental trials, and used it to suggest improvements to sampling plans. The simulation was validated by outputting six simulated ranges of positive samples that contained the experimental number of positive samples (range, 2 to 139 positives) recovered from six field trials with point source, systematic, and sporadic contamination. We then evaluated the relative performance between simple random, stratified random, or systematic sampling in a 1-acre field to detect point sources of contamination present at 0.3% to 1.7% prevalence. Randomized sampling was optimal because of lower variability in probability of acceptance. Optimized sampling was applied to detect an industry-relevant point source [3 log(CFU/g) over 0.3% of the field] and widespread contamination [-1 to -4 log(CFU/g) over the whole field] by taking 60 to 1,200 sample grabs of 3 g. More samples increased the power of detecting point source contamination, as the median probability of acceptance decreased from 85% with 60 samples to 5% with 1,200 samples. Sampling plans with larger total composite sample mass increased power to detect low-level, widespread contamination, as the median probability of acceptance with -3 log(CFU/g) contamination decreased from 85% with a 150-g total mass to 30% with a 1,200-g total mass. Therefore, preharvest sampling power increases by taking more, smaller samples with randomization, up to the constraints of total grabs and mass feasible or required for a food safety objective. IMPORTANCE This study addresses a need for improved preharvest sampling plans for pathogen detection in leafy green fields by developing and validating a preharvest sampling simulation model, avoiding the expensive task of physical sampling in many fields. Validated preharvest sampling simulations were used to develop guidance for preharvest sampling protocols. Sampling simulations predicted that sampling plans with randomization are less variable in their power to detect low-prevalence point source contamination in a 1-acre field. Collecting larger total sample masses improved the power of sampling plans in detecting widespread contamination in 1-acre fields. Hence, the power of typical sampling plans that collect 150 to 375 g per composite sample can be improved by taking more, randomized smaller samples for larger total sample mass. The improved sampling plans are subject to feasibility constraints or to meet a particular food safety objective.
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Oguadinma IC, Mishra A, Kumar GD. Sunlight Parameters Influence the Survival and Decline of Salmonella and Escherichia coli in Water. J Food Prot 2022; 85:1614-1624. [PMID: 36040230 DOI: 10.4315/jfp-22-042] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/11/2022] [Accepted: 08/13/2022] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
ABSTRACT The effect of variations in temperature, UV radiation, and sunlight intensity on Escherichia coli, E. coli O157:H7, Salmonella Newport, and antibiotic resistant (ABR) variants of E. coli O157:H7 and Salmonella Newport exposed to sunlight was evaluated. Bacterial strains suspended in sterile deionized water at a concentration of 8 log CFU/mL were exposed to sunlight on three different days for 180 min; control treatments were stored in the dark. The mean temperature of 30.08 and 26.57°C on day 1 and day 3, respectively, was significantly different (P < 0.05). The UV intensity was significantly different on all 3 days, and sunlight intensity significantly differed on day 3 (P < 0.05). Bacterial population decline positively correlated with temperature, sunlight, and UV intensity. Differences in bacterial population declines differed among species, ABR profile, and day of exposure (P < 0.05). On day 1 and day 2, the populations of E. coli dropped below the limit of detection (1 log CFU/mL), whereas the percentage of live cells was 67 and 6.6%, respectively. The artificial neural network model developed to predict bacterial survival under different environmental conditions suggested that Salmonella cells were more resistant than E. coli cells. The ABR strains had significantly higher numbers of viable cells after sunlight exposure (P < 0.05). Sunlight-exposed cells resuscitated in tryptic soy broth varied in maximum population density and maximum specific growth rate based on bacterial species and presence of ABR. Morphological changes such as viable but nonculturable state transition and filament formation were detected in subpopulations of sunlight-exposed bacteria. Daily fluctuations in UV and sunlight intensity can result in significant variations in bacterial decline and recovery. HIGHLIGHTS
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Affiliation(s)
- Ikechukwu Chukwuma Oguadinma
- Center for Food Safety, College of Agricultural and Environmental Sciences, University of Georgia, Griffin, Georgia 30223
| | - Abhinav Mishra
- Department of Food Science & Technology, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia 30602, USA
| | - Govindaraj Dev Kumar
- Center for Food Safety, College of Agricultural and Environmental Sciences, University of Georgia, Griffin, Georgia 30223
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Morgado ME, Hudson CL, Chattopadhyay S, Ta K, East C, Purser N, Allard S, Ferrier MD, Sapkota AR, Sharma M, Goldstein RR. The effect of a first flush rainwater harvesting and subsurface irrigation system on E. coli and pathogen concentrations in irrigation water, soil, and produce. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2022; 843:156976. [PMID: 35768032 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.156976] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/12/2022] [Revised: 06/10/2022] [Accepted: 06/21/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Climate change is stressing irrigation water sources, necessitating the evaluation of alternative waters such as harvested rainwater to determine if they meet water quality and food safety standards. We collected water, soil, and produce samples between June and August 2019 from two vegetable rain garden (VRG) sites in Frederick, Maryland that harvest rainwater using a first flush system, and deliver this water to produce through subsurface irrigation. The raised VRG beds include layers of gravel, sand, and soil that act as filters. We recorded the average surface soil moisture in each bed as well as antecedent precipitation. All water (n = 29), soil (n = 55), and produce (n = 57) samples were tested for generic E. coli using standard membrane filtration, and water samples were also tested for Salmonella spp. and Listeria monocytogenes by selective enrichment. No Salmonella spp. or L. monocytogenes isolates were detected in any water samples throughout the study period. Average E. coli levels from all harvested rainwater samples at both sites (1.2 and 24.4 CFU/100 mL) were well below the Good Agricultural Practices food safety guidelines. Only 7 % (3/44) of produce samples from beds irrigated with harvested rainwater were positive for E. coli. E. coli levels in soil samples were positively associated with average surface soil moisture (r2 = 0.13, p = 0.007). Additionally, E. coli presence in water samples was marginally associated with a shorter length of antecedent dry period (fewer days since preceding rainfall) (p = 0.058). Our results suggest that harvested rainwater collected through a first flush system and applied to produce through subsurface irrigation meets current food safety standards. Soil moisture monitoring could further reduce E. coli contamination risks from harvested rainwater-irrigated produce. First flush and subsurface irrigation systems could help mitigate climate change-related water challenges while protecting food safety and security.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michele E Morgado
- Maryland Institute for Applied Environmental Health, University of Maryland School of Public Health, College Park, MD, USA.
| | - Claire L Hudson
- Department of Plant Science and Landscape Architecture, University of Maryland, College Park, MD, USA; Department of Biology, Hood College, Frederick, MD, USA.
| | - Suhana Chattopadhyay
- Maryland Institute for Applied Environmental Health, University of Maryland School of Public Health, College Park, MD, USA.
| | - Kaitlin Ta
- Maryland Institute for Applied Environmental Health, University of Maryland School of Public Health, College Park, MD, USA.
| | - Cheryl East
- United States Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Northeast Area, Beltsville Agricultural Research Center, Environmental Microbial and Food Safety Laboratory, Beltsville, MD, USA.
| | - Nathan Purser
- Department of Biology, Hood College, Frederick, MD, USA.
| | - Sarah Allard
- Maryland Institute for Applied Environmental Health, University of Maryland School of Public Health, College Park, MD, USA.
| | - M Drew Ferrier
- Department of Biology, Hood College, Frederick, MD, USA.
| | - Amy R Sapkota
- Maryland Institute for Applied Environmental Health, University of Maryland School of Public Health, College Park, MD, USA.
| | - Manan Sharma
- United States Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Northeast Area, Beltsville Agricultural Research Center, Environmental Microbial and Food Safety Laboratory, Beltsville, MD, USA.
| | - Rachel Rosenberg Goldstein
- Maryland Institute for Applied Environmental Health, University of Maryland School of Public Health, College Park, MD, USA.
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12
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Brandl MT, Ivanek R, Zekaj N, Belias A, Wiedmann M, Suslow TV, Allende A, Munther DS. Weather stressors correlate with Escherichia coli and Salmonella enterica persister formation rates in the phyllosphere: a mathematical modeling study. ISME COMMUNICATIONS 2022; 2:91. [PMID: 37938340 PMCID: PMC9723732 DOI: 10.1038/s43705-022-00170-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/11/2022] [Revised: 08/31/2022] [Accepted: 09/06/2022] [Indexed: 10/10/2023]
Abstract
Enteric pathogens can enter a persister state in which they survive exposure to antibiotics and physicochemical stresses. Subpopulations of such phenotypic dormant variants have been detected in vivo and in planta in the laboratory, but their formation in the natural environment remains largely unexplored. We applied a mathematical model predicting the switch rate to persister cell in the phyllosphere to identify weather-related stressors associated with E. coli and S. enterica persister formation on plants based on their population dynamics in published field studies from the USA and Spain. Model outputs accurately depicted the bi-phasic decay of bacterial population sizes measured in the lettuce and spinach phyllosphere in these studies. Predicted E. coli persister switch rate on leaves was positively and negatively correlated with solar radiation intensity and wind velocity, respectively. Likewise, predicted S. enterica persister switch rate correlated positively with solar radiation intensity; however, a negative correlation was observed with air temperature, relative humidity, and dew point, factors involved in water deposition onto the phylloplane. These findings suggest that specific environmental factors may enrich for dormant bacterial cells on plants. Our model quantifiably links persister cell subpopulations in the plant habitat with broader physical conditions, spanning processes at different granular scales.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria T Brandl
- Produce Safety and Microbiology Research Unit, US Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Albany, CA, 94710, USA.
| | - Renata Ivanek
- Department of Population Medicine and Diagnostic Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, 14853, USA
| | - Nerion Zekaj
- Department of Mathematics and Statistics, Cleveland State University, Cleveland, OH, 44115, USA
| | - Alexandra Belias
- Department of Food Science, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, 14853, USA
| | - Martin Wiedmann
- Department of Food Science, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, 14853, USA
| | - Trevor V Suslow
- Department of Plant Sciences, University of California, Davis, CA, 95616, USA
| | - Ana Allende
- Research Group of Microbiology and Quality of Fruit and Vegetables, Food Science and Technology Department, CEBAS-CSIS, Campus Universitario de Espinardo, Murcia, E-30100, Spain
| | - Daniel S Munther
- Department of Mathematics and Statistics, Cleveland State University, Cleveland, OH, 44115, USA.
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13
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Transmission of Escherichia coli from Manure to Root Zones of Field-Grown Lettuce and Leek Plants. Microorganisms 2021; 9:microorganisms9112289. [PMID: 34835415 PMCID: PMC8622635 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms9112289] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/14/2021] [Revised: 10/26/2021] [Accepted: 11/01/2021] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Pathogenic Escherichia coli strains are responsible for food-borne disease outbreaks upon consumption of fresh vegetables and fruits. The aim of this study was to establish the transmission route of E. coli strain 0611, as proxy for human pathogenic E. coli, via manure, soil and plant root zones to the above-soil plant compartments. The ecological behavior of the introduced strain was established by making use of a combination of cultivation-based and molecular targeted and untargeted approaches. Strain 0611 CFUs and specific molecular targets were detected in the root zones of lettuce and leek plants, even up to 272 days after planting in the case of leek plants. However, no strain 0611 colonies were detected in leek leaves, and only in one occasion a single colony was found in lettuce leaves. Therefore, it was concluded that transmission of E. coli via manure is not the principal contamination route to the edible parts of both plant species grown under field conditions in this study. Strain 0611 was shown to accumulate in root zones of both species and metagenomic reads of this strain were retrieved from the lettuce rhizosphere soil metagenome library at a level of Log 4.11 CFU per g dry soil.
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14
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Beauvais W, Englishbey A, Marconi C, Cholula U, Belias A, Wemette M, Usaga J, Churey J, Worobo R, Enciso J, Anciso J, Nightingale K, Ivanek R. The effectiveness of treating irrigation water using ultraviolet radiation or sulphuric acid fertilizer for reducing generic Escherichia coli on fresh produce-a controlled intervention trial. J Appl Microbiol 2021; 131:1360-1377. [PMID: 33482030 PMCID: PMC8451819 DOI: 10.1111/jam.15011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/19/2020] [Revised: 01/06/2021] [Accepted: 01/18/2021] [Indexed: 12/03/2022]
Abstract
AIMS The aims of this study were to: (i) estimate the effectiveness of ultraviolet radiation (UV) and sulphuric acid-based fertilizer (SA), at reducing levels of generic Escherichia coli in surface irrigation water and on produce and surface soil in open produce fields; and (ii) describe the population dynamics of generic E. coli in produce fields. METHODS AND RESULTS Spinach and cantaloupe plots were randomly assigned to control, UV or SA treatment groups. Irrigation water was inoculated with Rifampicin-resistant E. coli prior to treatment. More than 75% of UV- and SA-treated tank water samples had counts below the detection limit, compared to a mean count of 3·3 Log10 CFU per ml before treatment. Levels of Rifampicin-resistant E. coli in soil and produce both increased and decreased over 10-15 days after irrigation, depending on the plot and time-period. CONCLUSIONS UV and SA treatments effectively reduce the levels of E. coli in surface irrigation water. Their effectiveness at reducing contamination on produce was dependent on environmental conditions. Applying wait-times after irrigation and prior to harvest is not a reliable means of mitigating against contaminated produce. SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY The results are of timely importance for the agricultural industry as new FSMA guidelines require producers to demonstrate a low microbial load in irrigation water or allow producers to apply a wait-time to mitigate the risk of contaminated produce.
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Affiliation(s)
- W. Beauvais
- Department of Population Medicine and Diagnostic SciencesCollege of Veterinary MedicineCornell UniversityIthacaNYUSA
- Comparative Pathobiology DepartmentCollege of Veterinary Medicine, Purdue UniversityWest LafayetteINUSA
| | - A.K. Englishbey
- Animal and Food SciencesTexas Tech UniversityLubbockTXUSA
- Hygiena LLCNew CastleDEUSA
| | - C.M. Marconi
- Texas A&M AgriLife‐WeslacoWeslacoTXUSA
- College of Agriculture and Life Sciences ‐ IR‐4 ProjectNorth Carolina State UniversityRaleighNCUSA
| | - U. Cholula
- Biological and Agricultural EngineeringCollege of Agriculture and Life SciencesTexas A&M UniversityCollege StationTXUSA
- Department of Agriculture, Veterinary and Rangeland SciencesUniversity of NevadaRenoNVUSA
| | - A.M. Belias
- Department of Food ScienceCollege of Agriculture and Life SciencesCornell UniversityIthacaNYUSA
| | - M. Wemette
- Department of Population Medicine and Diagnostic SciencesCollege of Veterinary MedicineCornell UniversityIthacaNYUSA
| | - J. Usaga
- Department of Food ScienceCollege of Agriculture and Life SciencesCornell UniversityIthacaNYUSA
- National Center for Food Science and TechnologyUniversity of Costa RicaCiudad Universitaria Rodrigo FacioSan JoseCosta Rica
| | - J.J. Churey
- Department of Food ScienceCollege of Agriculture and Life SciencesCornell UniversityIthacaNYUSA
| | - R.W. Worobo
- Department of Food ScienceCollege of Agriculture and Life SciencesCornell UniversityIthacaNYUSA
| | - J. Enciso
- Biological and Agricultural EngineeringCollege of Agriculture and Life SciencesTexas A&M UniversityCollege StationTXUSA
| | - J.R. Anciso
- Horticultural SciencesTexas A&M AgriLife Extension ServiceWeslacoTXUSA
| | - K. Nightingale
- Animal and Food SciencesTexas Tech UniversityLubbockTXUSA
| | - R. Ivanek
- Department of Population Medicine and Diagnostic SciencesCollege of Veterinary MedicineCornell UniversityIthacaNYUSA
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New standards at European Union level on water reuse for agricultural irrigation: Are the Spanish wastewater treatment plants ready to produce and distribute reclaimed water within the minimum quality requirements? Int J Food Microbiol 2021; 356:109352. [PMID: 34385095 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2021.109352] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/27/2021] [Revised: 06/23/2021] [Accepted: 07/29/2021] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
The new European regulation on minimum quality requirements (MQR) for water reuse (EU, 2020/741) was launched in May 2020 and describes the directives for the use of reclaimed water for agricultural irrigation. This Regulation will be directly applicable in all Member States from 26 June 2023. Since its publication in 2020, concerns have raised about potential non-compliance situations in water reuse systems. The present study represents a case study where three different water reuse systems have been monitored to establish their compliance with the MQR. Each water reuse system includes a wastewater treatment plant (WWTP), a distribution/storage system and an end-user point, where water is used for irrigation of leafy greens. The selected water reuse systems allowed us to compare the efficacy of water treatments implemented in two WWTPs as well as the impact of three different irrigation systems (drip, furrow and overhead irrigation). The presence and concentration of indicator microorganisms (Escherichia coli and C. perfringens spores) as well as pathogenic bacteria (Shiga toxin-producing, E. coli (STEC), E. coli O157:H7, and Salmonella spp.) were monitored in different sampling points (influent and effluent of the WWTPs, water reservoirs located at the distribution system and the end-user point at the irrigation system as well as in the leafy greens during their growing cycle. Average levels of E. coli (0.73 ± 1.20 log cfu E. coli/100 mL) obtained at the point where the WWTP operator delivers reclaimed water to the next actor in the chain, defined in the European regulation as the 'point of compliance', were within the established MQR (<1 log cfu/100 mL) (EU, 2020/741). On the other hand, average levels of E. coli at the end-user point (1.0 ± 1.2 log cfu/100 mL) were below the recommended threshold (2 log cfu E. coli/100 mL) for irrigation water based on the guidance document on microbiological risks in fresh fruits and vegetables at primary production (EC, 2017/C_163/01). However, several outlier points were observed among the samples taken at the irrigation point, which were linked to a specific cross-contamination event within the distribution/storage system. Regarding pathogenic bacteria, water samples from the influent of the WWTPs showed a 100% prevalence, while only 5% of the effluent samples were positive for any of the monitored pathogenic bacteria. Obtained results indicate that reclaimed water produced in the selected water reuse system is suitable to be used as irrigation water. However, efforts are necessary not only in the establishment of advance disinfection treatments but also in the maintenance of the distribution/storage systems.
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López-Gálvez F, Gómez PA, Artés F, Artés-Hernández F, Aguayo E. Interactions between Microbial Food Safety and Environmental Sustainability in the Fresh Produce Supply Chain. Foods 2021; 10:foods10071655. [PMID: 34359525 PMCID: PMC8307063 DOI: 10.3390/foods10071655] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/10/2021] [Revised: 07/08/2021] [Accepted: 07/16/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Improving the environmental sustainability of the food supply chain will help to achieve the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). This environmental sustainability is related to different SDGs, but mainly to SDG 2 (Zero Hunger), SDG 12 (Responsible Production and Consumption), SDG 13 (Climate Action), and SDG 15 (Life on Land). The strategies and measures used to improve this aspect of the food supply chain must remain in balance with other sustainability aspects (economic and social). In this framework, the interactions and possible conflicts between food supply chain safety and sustainability need to be assessed. Although priority must be given to safety aspects, food safety policies should be calibrated in order to avoid unnecessary deleterious effects on the environment. In the present review, a number of potential tensions and/or disagreements between the microbial safety and environmental sustainability of the fresh produce supply chain are identified and discussed. The addressed issues are spread throughout the food supply chain, from primary production to the end-of-life of the products, and also include the handling and processing industry, retailers, and consumers. Interactions of fresh produce microbial safety with topics such as food waste, supply chain structure, climate change, and use of resources have been covered. Finally, approaches and strategies that will prove useful to solve or mitigate the potential contradictions between fresh produce safety and sustainability are described and discussed. Upon analyzing the interplay between microbial safety and the environmental sustainability of the fresh produce supply chain, it becomes clear that decisions that are taken to ensure fresh produce safety must consider the possible effects on environmental, economic, and social sustainability aspects. To manage these interactions, a global approach considering the interconnections between human activities, animals, and the environment will be required.
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Affiliation(s)
- Francisco López-Gálvez
- Postharvest and Refrigeration Group, Escuela Técnica Superior de Ingeniería Agronómica (ETSIA), Universidad Politécnica de Cartagena (UPCT), Paseo Alfonso XIII, 48, 30203 Cartagena, Spain; (F.L.-G.); (F.A.); (F.A.-H.)
- Food Quality and Health Group, Institute of Plant Biotechnology (UPCT), Campus Muralla del Mar, 30202 Cartagena, Spain;
| | - Perla A. Gómez
- Food Quality and Health Group, Institute of Plant Biotechnology (UPCT), Campus Muralla del Mar, 30202 Cartagena, Spain;
| | - Francisco Artés
- Postharvest and Refrigeration Group, Escuela Técnica Superior de Ingeniería Agronómica (ETSIA), Universidad Politécnica de Cartagena (UPCT), Paseo Alfonso XIII, 48, 30203 Cartagena, Spain; (F.L.-G.); (F.A.); (F.A.-H.)
- Food Quality and Health Group, Institute of Plant Biotechnology (UPCT), Campus Muralla del Mar, 30202 Cartagena, Spain;
| | - Francisco Artés-Hernández
- Postharvest and Refrigeration Group, Escuela Técnica Superior de Ingeniería Agronómica (ETSIA), Universidad Politécnica de Cartagena (UPCT), Paseo Alfonso XIII, 48, 30203 Cartagena, Spain; (F.L.-G.); (F.A.); (F.A.-H.)
- Food Quality and Health Group, Institute of Plant Biotechnology (UPCT), Campus Muralla del Mar, 30202 Cartagena, Spain;
| | - Encarna Aguayo
- Postharvest and Refrigeration Group, Escuela Técnica Superior de Ingeniería Agronómica (ETSIA), Universidad Politécnica de Cartagena (UPCT), Paseo Alfonso XIII, 48, 30203 Cartagena, Spain; (F.L.-G.); (F.A.); (F.A.-H.)
- Food Quality and Health Group, Institute of Plant Biotechnology (UPCT), Campus Muralla del Mar, 30202 Cartagena, Spain;
- Correspondence:
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