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Svoboda T, Labuda R, Sulyok M, Krska R, Bacher M, Berthiller F, Adam G. Fusarium sporotrichioides Produces Two HT-2-α-Glucosides on Rice. Toxins (Basel) 2024; 16:99. [PMID: 38393177 PMCID: PMC10893509 DOI: 10.3390/toxins16020099] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/07/2024] [Revised: 01/25/2024] [Accepted: 01/30/2024] [Indexed: 02/25/2024] Open
Abstract
Fusarium is a genus that mostly consists of plant pathogenic fungi which are able to produce a broad range of toxic secondary metabolites. In this study, we focus on a type A trichothecene-producing isolate (15-39) of Fusarium sporotrichioides from Lower Austria. We assessed the secondary metabolite profile and optimized the toxin production conditions on autoclaved rice and found that in addition to large amounts of T-2 and HT-2 toxins, this strain was able to produce HT-2-glucoside. The optimal conditions for the production of T-2 toxin, HT-2 toxin, and HT-2-glucoside on autoclaved rice were incubation at 12 °C under constant light for four weeks, darkness at 30 °C for two weeks, and constant light for three weeks at 20 °C, respectively. The HT-2-glucoside was purified, and the structure elucidation by NMR revealed a mixture of two alpha-glucosides, presumably HT-2-3-O-alpha-glucoside and HT-2-4-O-alpha-glucoside. The efforts to separate the two compounds by HPLC were unsuccessful. No hydrolysis was observed with two the alpha-glucosidases or with human salivary amylase and Saccharomyces cerevisiae maltase. We propose that the two HT-2-alpha-glucosides are not formed by a glucosyltransferase as they are in plants, but by a trans-glycosylating alpha-glucosidase expressed by the fungus on the starch-containing rice medium.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas Svoboda
- Institute of Microbial Genetics, Department of Applied Genetics and Cell Biology, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences Vienna, Konrad-Lorenz-Str. 24, 3430 Tulln, Austria;
| | - Roman Labuda
- Unit of Food Microbiology, Institute of Food Safety, Food Technology and Veterinary Public Health, Department for Farm Animals and Veterinary Public Health, University of Veterinary Medicine Vienna, Veterinaerplatz 1, 1210 Vienna, Austria;
- Research Platform Bioactive Microbial Metabolites (BiMM), Konrad Lorenz Strasse 24, 3430 Tulln, Austria
| | - Michael Sulyok
- Institute of Bioanalytics and Agro-Metabolomics, Department of Agrobiotechnology (IFA-Tulln), University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences Vienna, Konrad Lorenz Strasse 20, 3430 Tulln, Austria; (M.S.); (R.K.); (F.B.)
| | - Rudolf Krska
- Institute of Bioanalytics and Agro-Metabolomics, Department of Agrobiotechnology (IFA-Tulln), University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences Vienna, Konrad Lorenz Strasse 20, 3430 Tulln, Austria; (M.S.); (R.K.); (F.B.)
- Austrian Competence Centre for Feed and Food Quality, Safety and Innovation FFoQSI GmbH, Konrad-Lorenz-Strasse 20, 3430 Tulln, Austria
| | - Markus Bacher
- Institute of Microbial Genetics, Department of Applied Genetics and Cell Biology, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences Vienna, Konrad-Lorenz-Str. 24, 3430 Tulln, Austria;
- Unit of Food Microbiology, Institute of Food Safety, Food Technology and Veterinary Public Health, Department for Farm Animals and Veterinary Public Health, University of Veterinary Medicine Vienna, Veterinaerplatz 1, 1210 Vienna, Austria;
- Institute of Chemistry of Renewable Resources, Department of Chemistry, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences Vienna, Konrad-Lorenz-Strasse 24, 3430 Tulln, Austria
| | - Franz Berthiller
- Institute of Bioanalytics and Agro-Metabolomics, Department of Agrobiotechnology (IFA-Tulln), University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences Vienna, Konrad Lorenz Strasse 20, 3430 Tulln, Austria; (M.S.); (R.K.); (F.B.)
| | - Gerhard Adam
- Institute of Microbial Genetics, Department of Applied Genetics and Cell Biology, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences Vienna, Konrad-Lorenz-Str. 24, 3430 Tulln, Austria;
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Modified Mycotoxins, a Still Unresolved Issue. CHEMISTRY 2022. [DOI: 10.3390/chemistry4040099] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Mycotoxins are toxic secondary metabolites produced by filamentous microfungi on almost every agricultural commodity worldwide. After the infection of crop plants, mycotoxins are modified by plant enzymes or other fungi and often conjugated to more polar substances, like sugars. The formed—often less toxic—metabolites are stored in the vacuole in soluble form or bound to macromolecules. As these substances are usually not detected during routine analysis and no maximum limits are in force, they are called modified mycotoxins. While, in most cases, modified mycotoxins have lower intrinsic toxicity, they might be reactivated during mammalian metabolism. In particular, the polar group might be cleaved off (e.g., by intestinal bacteria), releasing the native mycotoxin. This review aims to provide an overview of the critical issues related to modified mycotoxins. The main conclusion is that analytical aspects, toxicological evaluation, and exposure assessment merit more investigation.
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Wang L, Liu Q, Ge S, Liang W, Liao W, Li W, Jiao G, Wei X, Shao G, Xie L, Sheng Z, Hu S, Tang S, Hu P. Genomic footprints related with adaptation and fumonisins production in Fusarium proliferatum. Front Microbiol 2022; 13:1004454. [PMID: 36212817 PMCID: PMC9532532 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2022.1004454] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/27/2022] [Accepted: 08/26/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Fusarium proliferatum is the principal etiological agent of rice spikelet rot disease (RSRD) in China, causing yield losses and fumonisins contamination in rice. The intraspecific variability and evolution pattern of the pathogen is poorly understood. Here, we performed whole-genome resequencing of 67 F. proliferatum strains collected from major rice-growing regions in China. Population structure indicated that eastern population of F. proliferatum located in Yangtze River with the high genetic diversity and recombinant mode that was predicted as the putative center of origin. Southern population and northeast population were likely been introduced into local populations through gene flow, and genetic differentiation between them might be shaped by rice-driven domestication. A total of 121 distinct genomic loci implicated 85 candidate genes were suggestively associated with variation of fumonisin B1 (FB1) production by genome-wide association study (GWAS). We subsequently tested the function of five candidate genes (gabap, chsD, palA, hxk1, and isw2) mapped in our association study by FB1 quantification of deletion strains, and mutants showed the impact on FB1 production as compared to the wide-type strain. Together, this is the first study to provide insights into the evolution and adaptation in natural populations of F. proliferatum on rice, as well as the complex genetic architecture for fumonisins biosynthesis.
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Bockwoldt JA, Ehrmann MA. Characterisation of recombinant GH 3 β-glucosidase from β-glucan producing Levilactobacillus brevis TMW 1.2112. Antonie Van Leeuwenhoek 2022; 115:955-968. [PMID: 35661053 PMCID: PMC9296380 DOI: 10.1007/s10482-022-01751-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/02/2021] [Accepted: 05/13/2022] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Abstract
Levilactobacillus (L.) brevis TMW 1.2112 is an isolate from wheat beer that produces O2-substituted (1,3)-β-D-glucan, a capsular exopolysaccharide (EPS) from activated sugar nucleotide precursors by use of a glycosyltransferase. Within the genome sequence of L. brevis TMW 1.2112 enzymes of the glycoside hydrolases families were identified. Glycoside hydrolases (GH) are carbohydrate-active enzymes, able to hydrolyse glycosidic bonds. The enzyme β-glucosidase BglB (AZI09_02170) was heterologous expressed in Escherichia coli BL21. BglB has a monomeric structure of 83.5 kDa and is a member of the glycoside hydrolase family 3 (GH 3) which strongly favoured substrates with β-glycosidic bonds. Km was 0.22 mM for pNP β-D-glucopyranoside demonstrating a high affinity of the recombinant enzyme for the substrate. Enzymes able to degrade the (1,3)-β-D-glucan of L. brevis TMW 1.2112 have not yet been described. However, BglB showed only a low hydrolytic activity towards the EPS, which was measured by means of the D-glucose releases. Besides, characterised GH 3 β-glucosidases from various lactic acid bacteria (LAB) were phylogenetically analysed to identify connections in terms of enzymatic activity and β-glucan formation. This revealed that the family of GH 3 β-glucosidases of LABs comprises most likely exo-active enzymes which are not directly associated with the ability of these LAB to produce EPS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julia A Bockwoldt
- Chair of Microbiology, Technical University of Munich, Freising, Germany
| | - Matthias A Ehrmann
- Chair of Microbiology, Technical University of Munich, Freising, Germany.
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Li K, Wang L, Yu D, Yan Z, Liu N, Wu A. Cellobiose inhibits the release of deoxynivalenol from transformed deoxynivalenol-3-glucoside from Lactiplantibacillus plantarum. FOOD CHEMISTRY. MOLECULAR SCIENCES 2022; 4:100077. [PMID: 35415700 PMCID: PMC8991972 DOI: 10.1016/j.fochms.2022.100077] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2021] [Revised: 01/14/2022] [Accepted: 01/15/2022] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
The NMM.1 efficiently transformed deoxynivalenol-3-glucoside to deoxynivalenol. Deoxynivalenol-3-glucoside transformation preferred weak alkaline environments. Deoxynivalenol-3-glucoside down-regulated cellobiose metabolism of the NMM.1. Cellobiose could efficiently inhibit deoxynivalenol-3-glucoside transformation.
The masked mycotoxin deoxynivalenol-3-glucoside (D3G) has been reported to be a detoxification product in plants, but can be hydrolyzed into its toxic precursor, deoxynivalenol (DON). Herein, we reported that Lactiplantibacillus plantarum (L. plantarum) NMM.1, isolated from Inner Mongolia raw milk, can efficiently transform D3G to DON in a short time. The global transcriptome microarray profiling of L. plantarum NMM.1 revealed differential expression of genes related to the phosphotransferase system (PTS) when D3G was used as the sole carbohydrate source. By adding an exogenous carbon source, we found that cellobiose efficiently inhibited the conversion of D3G into its precursor toxin by L. plantarum NMM.1. Overall, substrate depletion studies, transcriptome analysis, and carbohydrate intervention studies of L. plantarum NMM.1 suggested that cellobiose could be used to prevent the transformation of D3G into its free native DON by L. plantarum, thereby preventing harm to the human body.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kailin Li
- SIBS-UGENT-SJTU Joint Laboratory of Mycotoxin Research, CAS Key Laboratory of Nutrition, Metabolism and Food Safety, Shanghai Institute of Nutrition and Health, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, China
| | - Lan Wang
- SIBS-UGENT-SJTU Joint Laboratory of Mycotoxin Research, CAS Key Laboratory of Nutrition, Metabolism and Food Safety, Shanghai Institute of Nutrition and Health, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, China
| | - Dianzhen Yu
- SIBS-UGENT-SJTU Joint Laboratory of Mycotoxin Research, CAS Key Laboratory of Nutrition, Metabolism and Food Safety, Shanghai Institute of Nutrition and Health, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, China
| | - Zheng Yan
- SIBS-UGENT-SJTU Joint Laboratory of Mycotoxin Research, CAS Key Laboratory of Nutrition, Metabolism and Food Safety, Shanghai Institute of Nutrition and Health, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, China
| | - Na Liu
- SIBS-UGENT-SJTU Joint Laboratory of Mycotoxin Research, CAS Key Laboratory of Nutrition, Metabolism and Food Safety, Shanghai Institute of Nutrition and Health, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, China
| | - Aibo Wu
- SIBS-UGENT-SJTU Joint Laboratory of Mycotoxin Research, CAS Key Laboratory of Nutrition, Metabolism and Food Safety, Shanghai Institute of Nutrition and Health, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, China
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Hu Y, Li H, Min J, Yu Y, Liu W, Huang JW, Zhang L, Yang Y, Dai L, Chen CC, Guo RT. Crystal structure and biochemical analysis of the specialized deoxynivalenol-detoxifying glyoxalase SPG from Gossypium hirsutum. Int J Biol Macromol 2022; 200:388-396. [PMID: 35051496 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2022.01.055] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/24/2021] [Revised: 01/01/2022] [Accepted: 01/09/2022] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Deoxynivalenol (DON) and its acetylated derivatives such as 3-acetyldeoxynivalenol (3A-DON) and 15-acetyldeoxynivalenol (15A-DON) are notorious mycotoxins in Fusarium contaminated cereals, which pose a great threat to human and livestock health. The specialized glyoxalase I from Gossypium hirsutum (SPG) can lower the toxicity of 3A-DON by conducting isomerization to transfer C8 carbonyl to C7 and double bond from C9-C10 to C8-C9. Here we report that the substrate-flexible SPG can also recognize 15A-DON and DON, probably following the same isomerization mechanism as that for 3A-DON. The crystallographic, mutagenesis, and biochemical analyses revealed that SPG provides a hydrophobic pocket to accommodate the substrate and residue E167 might serve as the catalytic base. A variant SPGY62A that was constructed based on structure-based protein engineering exhibited elevated catalytic activity towards DON, 3A-DON, and 15A-DON by >70%. Furthermore, variant SPGY62A was successfully expressed in Pichia pastoris, whose catalytic activity was also compared to that produced in Escherichia coli. These results provide a blueprint for further protein engineering of SPG and reveal the potential applications of the enzyme in detoxifying DON, 3A-DON and 15A-DON.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yumei Hu
- State Key Laboratory of Biocatalysis and Enzyme Engineering, Hubei Collaborative Innovation Center for Green Transformation of Bio-Resources, Hubei Key Laboratory of Industrial Biotechnology, Hubei Key Laboratory of Regional Development and Environmental Response, Faculty of Resources and Environmental Science, School of Life Sciences, Hubei University, Wuhan 430062, PR China
| | - Hao Li
- State Key Laboratory of Biocatalysis and Enzyme Engineering, Hubei Collaborative Innovation Center for Green Transformation of Bio-Resources, Hubei Key Laboratory of Industrial Biotechnology, Hubei Key Laboratory of Regional Development and Environmental Response, Faculty of Resources and Environmental Science, School of Life Sciences, Hubei University, Wuhan 430062, PR China
| | - Jian Min
- State Key Laboratory of Biocatalysis and Enzyme Engineering, Hubei Collaborative Innovation Center for Green Transformation of Bio-Resources, Hubei Key Laboratory of Industrial Biotechnology, Hubei Key Laboratory of Regional Development and Environmental Response, Faculty of Resources and Environmental Science, School of Life Sciences, Hubei University, Wuhan 430062, PR China
| | - Yuanyuan Yu
- State Key Laboratory of Biocatalysis and Enzyme Engineering, Hubei Collaborative Innovation Center for Green Transformation of Bio-Resources, Hubei Key Laboratory of Industrial Biotechnology, Hubei Key Laboratory of Regional Development and Environmental Response, Faculty of Resources and Environmental Science, School of Life Sciences, Hubei University, Wuhan 430062, PR China
| | - Weidong Liu
- National Engineering Laboratory for Industrial Enzymes, Tianjin Institute of Industrial Biotechnology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Tianjin 300308, PR China
| | - Jian-Wen Huang
- State Key Laboratory of Biocatalysis and Enzyme Engineering, Hubei Collaborative Innovation Center for Green Transformation of Bio-Resources, Hubei Key Laboratory of Industrial Biotechnology, Hubei Key Laboratory of Regional Development and Environmental Response, Faculty of Resources and Environmental Science, School of Life Sciences, Hubei University, Wuhan 430062, PR China
| | - Lilan Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Biocatalysis and Enzyme Engineering, Hubei Collaborative Innovation Center for Green Transformation of Bio-Resources, Hubei Key Laboratory of Industrial Biotechnology, Hubei Key Laboratory of Regional Development and Environmental Response, Faculty of Resources and Environmental Science, School of Life Sciences, Hubei University, Wuhan 430062, PR China
| | - Yunyun Yang
- State Key Laboratory of Biocatalysis and Enzyme Engineering, Hubei Collaborative Innovation Center for Green Transformation of Bio-Resources, Hubei Key Laboratory of Industrial Biotechnology, Hubei Key Laboratory of Regional Development and Environmental Response, Faculty of Resources and Environmental Science, School of Life Sciences, Hubei University, Wuhan 430062, PR China
| | - Longhai Dai
- State Key Laboratory of Biocatalysis and Enzyme Engineering, Hubei Collaborative Innovation Center for Green Transformation of Bio-Resources, Hubei Key Laboratory of Industrial Biotechnology, Hubei Key Laboratory of Regional Development and Environmental Response, Faculty of Resources and Environmental Science, School of Life Sciences, Hubei University, Wuhan 430062, PR China.
| | - Chun-Chi Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Biocatalysis and Enzyme Engineering, Hubei Collaborative Innovation Center for Green Transformation of Bio-Resources, Hubei Key Laboratory of Industrial Biotechnology, Hubei Key Laboratory of Regional Development and Environmental Response, Faculty of Resources and Environmental Science, School of Life Sciences, Hubei University, Wuhan 430062, PR China.
| | - Rey-Ting Guo
- State Key Laboratory of Biocatalysis and Enzyme Engineering, Hubei Collaborative Innovation Center for Green Transformation of Bio-Resources, Hubei Key Laboratory of Industrial Biotechnology, Hubei Key Laboratory of Regional Development and Environmental Response, Faculty of Resources and Environmental Science, School of Life Sciences, Hubei University, Wuhan 430062, PR China.
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Matsui K, Takeda H, Shinkai K, Kakinuma T, Koizumi Y, Kase M, Yoshinari T, Minegishi H, Nakajima Y, Aikawa S, Takahashi-Ando N, Kimura M. 4- O-Glucosylation of Trichothecenes by Fusarium Species: A Phase II Xenobiotic Metabolism for t-Type Trichothecene Producers. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:13542. [PMID: 34948339 PMCID: PMC8709292 DOI: 10.3390/ijms222413542] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/27/2021] [Revised: 12/09/2021] [Accepted: 12/12/2021] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
The t-type trichothecene producers Fusarium sporotrichioides and Fusarium graminearum protect themselves against their own mycotoxins by acetylating the C-3 hydroxy group with Tri101p acetylase. To understand the mechanism by which they deal with exogenously added d-type trichothecenes, the Δtri5 mutants expressing all but the first trichothecene pathway enzymes were fed with trichodermol (TDmol), trichothecolone (TCC), 8-deoxytrichothecin, and trichothecin. LC-MS/MS and NMR analyses showed that these C-3 unoxygenated trichothecenes were conjugated with glucose at C-4 by α-glucosidic linkage. As t-type trichothecenes are readily incorporated into the biosynthetic pathway following the C-3 acetylation, the mycotoxins were fed to the ΔFgtri5ΔFgtri101 mutant to examine their fate. LC-MS/MS and NMR analyses demonstrated that the mutant conjugated glucose at C-4 of HT-2 toxin (HT-2) by α-glucosidic linkage, while the ΔFgtri5 mutant metabolized HT-2 to 3-acetyl HT-2 toxin and T-2 toxin. The 4-O-glucosylation of exogenously added t-type trichothecenes appears to be a general response of the ΔFgtri5ΔFgtri101 mutant, as nivalenol and its acetylated derivatives appeared to be conjugated with hexose to some extent. The toxicities of 4-O-glucosides of TDmol, TCC, and HT-2 were much weaker than their corresponding aglycons, suggesting that 4-O-glucosylation serves as a phase II xenobiotic metabolism for t-type trichothecene producers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kosuke Matsui
- Graduate School of Bioagricultural Sciences, Nagoya University, Furo-cho, Chikusa-ku, Nagoya 464-8601, Aichi, Japan; (K.M.); (Y.N.); (M.K.)
| | - Hirone Takeda
- Graduate School of Science and Engineering, Toyo University, 2100 Kujirai, Kawagoe 350-8585, Saitama, Japan; (H.T.); (K.S.); (Y.K.); (M.K.); (H.M.)
| | - Koki Shinkai
- Graduate School of Science and Engineering, Toyo University, 2100 Kujirai, Kawagoe 350-8585, Saitama, Japan; (H.T.); (K.S.); (Y.K.); (M.K.); (H.M.)
| | - Takao Kakinuma
- Faculty of Science and Engineering, Toyo University, 2100 Kujirai, Kawagoe 350-8585, Saitama, Japan;
| | - Yoshiaki Koizumi
- Graduate School of Science and Engineering, Toyo University, 2100 Kujirai, Kawagoe 350-8585, Saitama, Japan; (H.T.); (K.S.); (Y.K.); (M.K.); (H.M.)
| | - Masahiro Kase
- Graduate School of Science and Engineering, Toyo University, 2100 Kujirai, Kawagoe 350-8585, Saitama, Japan; (H.T.); (K.S.); (Y.K.); (M.K.); (H.M.)
| | - Tomoya Yoshinari
- Division of Microbiology, National Institute of Health and Sciences, Kawasaki 210-9501, Kanagawa, Japan;
| | - Hiroaki Minegishi
- Graduate School of Science and Engineering, Toyo University, 2100 Kujirai, Kawagoe 350-8585, Saitama, Japan; (H.T.); (K.S.); (Y.K.); (M.K.); (H.M.)
| | - Yuichi Nakajima
- Graduate School of Bioagricultural Sciences, Nagoya University, Furo-cho, Chikusa-ku, Nagoya 464-8601, Aichi, Japan; (K.M.); (Y.N.); (M.K.)
| | - Shunichi Aikawa
- Research Institute of Industrial Technology, Toyo University, 2100 Kujirai, Kawagoe 350-8585, Saitama, Japan;
| | - Naoko Takahashi-Ando
- Graduate School of Science and Engineering, Toyo University, 2100 Kujirai, Kawagoe 350-8585, Saitama, Japan; (H.T.); (K.S.); (Y.K.); (M.K.); (H.M.)
- Faculty of Science and Engineering, Toyo University, 2100 Kujirai, Kawagoe 350-8585, Saitama, Japan;
- Research Institute of Industrial Technology, Toyo University, 2100 Kujirai, Kawagoe 350-8585, Saitama, Japan;
| | - Makoto Kimura
- Graduate School of Bioagricultural Sciences, Nagoya University, Furo-cho, Chikusa-ku, Nagoya 464-8601, Aichi, Japan; (K.M.); (Y.N.); (M.K.)
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Daud N, Currie V, Duncan G, Farquharson F, Yoshinari T, Louis P, Gratz SW. Prevalent Human Gut Bacteria Hydrolyse and Metabolise Important Food-Derived Mycotoxins and Masked Mycotoxins. Toxins (Basel) 2020; 12:toxins12100654. [PMID: 33066173 PMCID: PMC7601956 DOI: 10.3390/toxins12100654] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/21/2020] [Revised: 10/06/2020] [Accepted: 10/09/2020] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Mycotoxins are important food contaminants that commonly co-occur with modified mycotoxins such as mycotoxin-glucosides in contaminated cereal grains. These masked mycotoxins are less toxic, but their breakdown and release of unconjugated mycotoxins has been shown by mixed gut microbiota of humans and animals. The role of different bacteria in hydrolysing mycotoxin-glucosides is unknown, and this study therefore investigated fourteen strains of human gut bacteria for their ability to break down masked mycotoxins. Individual bacterial strains were incubated anaerobically with masked mycotoxins (deoxynivalenol-3-β-glucoside, DON-Glc; nivalenol-3-β-glucoside, NIV-Glc; HT-2-β-glucoside, HT-2-Glc; diacetoxyscirpenol-α-glucoside, DAS-Glc), or unconjugated mycotoxins (DON, NIV, HT-2, T-2, and DAS) for up to 48 h. Bacterial growth, hydrolysis of mycotoxin-glucosides and further metabolism of mycotoxins were assessed. We found no impact of any mycotoxin on bacterial growth. We have demonstrated that Butyrivibrio fibrisolvens, Roseburia intestinalis and Eubacterium rectale hydrolyse DON-Glc, HT-2 Glc, and NIV-Glc efficiently and have confirmed this activity in Bifidobacterium adolescentis and Lactiplantibacillus plantarum (DON-Glc only). Prevotella copri and B. fibrisolvens efficiently de-acetylated T-2 and DAS, but none of the bacteria were capable of de-epoxydation or hydrolysis of α-glucosides. In summary we have identified key bacteria involved in hydrolysing mycotoxin-glucosides and de-acetylating type A trichothecenes in the human gut.
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Affiliation(s)
- Noshin Daud
- Rowett Institute, University of Aberdeen, Foresterhill, Aberdeen AB25 2ZD, UK; (N.D.); (V.C.); (G.D.); (F.F.); (P.L.)
| | - Valerie Currie
- Rowett Institute, University of Aberdeen, Foresterhill, Aberdeen AB25 2ZD, UK; (N.D.); (V.C.); (G.D.); (F.F.); (P.L.)
| | - Gary Duncan
- Rowett Institute, University of Aberdeen, Foresterhill, Aberdeen AB25 2ZD, UK; (N.D.); (V.C.); (G.D.); (F.F.); (P.L.)
| | - Freda Farquharson
- Rowett Institute, University of Aberdeen, Foresterhill, Aberdeen AB25 2ZD, UK; (N.D.); (V.C.); (G.D.); (F.F.); (P.L.)
| | - Tomoya Yoshinari
- Division of Microbiology, National Institute of Health Sciences, 3-25-26 Tonomachi, Kawasaki-ku, Kawasaki-shi, Kanagawa 210-9501, Japan;
| | - Petra Louis
- Rowett Institute, University of Aberdeen, Foresterhill, Aberdeen AB25 2ZD, UK; (N.D.); (V.C.); (G.D.); (F.F.); (P.L.)
| | - Silvia W. Gratz
- Rowett Institute, University of Aberdeen, Foresterhill, Aberdeen AB25 2ZD, UK; (N.D.); (V.C.); (G.D.); (F.F.); (P.L.)
- Correspondence:
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An update on T-2 toxin and its modified forms: metabolism, immunotoxicity mechanism, and human exposure assessment. Arch Toxicol 2020; 94:3645-3669. [PMID: 32910237 DOI: 10.1007/s00204-020-02899-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/24/2020] [Accepted: 09/01/2020] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
T-2 toxin is the most toxic trichothecene mycotoxin, and it exerts potent toxic effects, including immunotoxicity, neurotoxicity, and reproductive toxicity. Recently, several novel metabolites, including 3',4'-dihydroxy-T-2 toxin and 4',4'-dihydroxy-T-2 toxin, have been uncovered. The enzymes CYP3A4 and carboxylesterase contribute to T-2 toxin metabolism, with 3'-hydroxy-T-2 toxin and HT-2 toxin as the corresponding primary products. Modified forms of T-2 toxin, including T-2-3-glucoside, exert their immunotoxic effects by signaling through JAK/STAT but not MAPK. T-2-3-glucoside results from hydrolyzation of the corresponding parent mycotoxin and other metabolites by the intestinal microbiota, which leads to enhanced toxicity. Increasing evidence has shown that autophagy, hypoxia-inducible factors, and exosomes are involved in T-2 toxin-induced immunotoxicity. Autophagy promotes the immunosuppression induced by T-2 toxin, and a complex crosstalk between apoptosis and autophagy exists. Very recently, "immune evasion" activity was reported to be associated with this toxin; this activity is initiated inside cells and allows pathogens to escape the host immune response. Moreover, T-2 toxin has the potential to trigger hypoxia in cells, which is related to activation of hypoxia-inducible factor and the release of exosomes, leading to immunotoxicity. Based on the data from a series of human exposure studies, free T-2 toxin, HT-2 toxin, and HT-2-4-glucuronide should be considered human T-2 toxin biomarkers in the urine. The present review focuses on novel findings related to the metabolism, immunotoxicity, and human exposure assessment of T-2 toxin and its modified forms. In particular, the immunotoxicity mechanisms of T-2 toxin and the toxicity mechanism of its modified form, as well as human T-2 toxin biomarkers, are discussed. This work will contribute to an improved understanding of the immunotoxicity mechanism of T-2 toxin and its modified forms.
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Abdi M, Asadi A, Maleki F, Kouhsari E, Fattahi A, Ohadi E, Lotfali E, Ahmadi A, Ghafouri Z. Microbiological Detoxification of Mycotoxins: Focus on Mechanisms and Advances. Infect Disord Drug Targets 2020; 21:339-357. [PMID: 32543365 DOI: 10.2174/1871526520666200616145150] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/09/2020] [Revised: 04/10/2020] [Accepted: 04/10/2020] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Some fungal species of the genera Aspergillus, Penicillium, and Fusarium secretes toxic metabolites known as mycotoxins, have become a global concern that is toxic to different species of animals and humans. Biological mycotoxins detoxification has been studied by researchers around the world as a new strategy for mycotoxin removal. Bacteria, fungi, yeast, molds, and protozoa are the main living organisms appropriate for the mycotoxin detoxification. Enzymatic and degradation sorptions are the main mechanisms involved in microbiological detoxification of mycotoxins. Regardless of the method used, proper management tools that consist of before-harvest prevention and after-harvest detoxification are required. Here, in this review, we focus on the microbiological detoxification and mechanisms involved in the decontamination of mycotoxins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Milad Abdi
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Medicine, Iran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Arezoo Asadi
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Medicine, Iran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Farajolah Maleki
- Department of Laboratory Sciences, School of Allied Medical Sciences, Ilam University of Medical sciences, Ilam, Iran
| | - Ebrahim Kouhsari
- Laboratory Sciences Research Center, Golestan University of Medical Sciences, Gorgan, Iran
| | - Azam Fattahi
- Center for Research and Training in Skin Disease and Leprosy, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Elnaz Ohadi
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Medicine, Iran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Ensieh Lotfali
- Department of Medical Parasitology and Mycology, School of Medicine, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Alireza Ahmadi
- Laboratory Sciences Research Center, Golestan University of Medical Sciences, Gorgan, Iran
| | - Zahra Ghafouri
- Department of Biochemistry, Biophysics and Genetics, Faculty of Medicine, Mazandaran University of Medical Sciences, Sari, Iran
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11
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Kasimir M, Behrens M, Schulz M, Kuchenbuch H, Focke C, Humpf HU. Intestinal Metabolism of α- and β-Glucosylated Modified Mycotoxins T-2 and HT-2 Toxin in the Pig Cecum Model. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2020; 68:5455-5461. [PMID: 32298583 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jafc.0c00576] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
The type A trichothecene mycotoxins T-2 and HT-2 toxin are fungal secondary metabolites produced by Fusarium fungi, which contaminate food and feed worldwide. Especially as a result of the high toxicity of T-2 toxin and their occurrence together with glucosylated forms in cereal crops, these mycotoxins are of human health concern. Particularly, it is unknown whether and how these modified mycotoxins are metabolized in the gastrointestinal tract and, thus, contribute to the overall toxicity. Therefore, the comparative intestinal metabolism of T-2 and HT-2 toxin glucosides in α and β configuration was investigated using the ex vivo pig cecum model, which mimics the human intestinal metabolism. Regardless of its configuration, the C-3 glycosidic bond was hydrolyzed within 10-20 min, releasing T-2 and HT-2 toxin, which were further metabolized to HT-2 toxin and T-2 triol, respectively. We conclude that T-2 and HT-2 toxin should be evaluated together with their modified forms for risk assessment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthias Kasimir
- Institute of Food Chemistry, Westfälische Wilhelms-Universität Münster, 48149 Münster, Germany
| | - Matthias Behrens
- Institute of Food Chemistry, Westfälische Wilhelms-Universität Münster, 48149 Münster, Germany
| | - Mareike Schulz
- Institute of Food Chemistry, Westfälische Wilhelms-Universität Münster, 48149 Münster, Germany
| | - Henning Kuchenbuch
- Institute of Food Chemistry, Westfälische Wilhelms-Universität Münster, 48149 Münster, Germany
| | - Christine Focke
- Institute of Food Chemistry, Westfälische Wilhelms-Universität Münster, 48149 Münster, Germany
| | - Hans-Ulrich Humpf
- Institute of Food Chemistry, Westfälische Wilhelms-Universität Münster, 48149 Münster, Germany
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12
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Mestrom L, Przypis M, Kowalczykiewicz D, Pollender A, Kumpf A, Marsden SR, Bento I, Jarzębski AB, Szymańska K, Chruściel A, Tischler D, Schoevaart R, Hanefeld U, Hagedoorn PL. Leloir Glycosyltransferases in Applied Biocatalysis: A Multidisciplinary Approach. Int J Mol Sci 2019; 20:ijms20215263. [PMID: 31652818 PMCID: PMC6861944 DOI: 10.3390/ijms20215263] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/02/2019] [Revised: 10/17/2019] [Accepted: 10/18/2019] [Indexed: 01/13/2023] Open
Abstract
Enzymes are nature’s catalyst of choice for the highly selective and efficient coupling of carbohydrates. Enzymatic sugar coupling is a competitive technology for industrial glycosylation reactions, since chemical synthetic routes require extensive use of laborious protection group manipulations and often lack regio- and stereoselectivity. The application of Leloir glycosyltransferases has received considerable attention in recent years and offers excellent control over the reactivity and selectivity of glycosylation reactions with unprotected carbohydrates, paving the way for previously inaccessible synthetic routes. The development of nucleotide recycling cascades has allowed for the efficient production and reuse of nucleotide sugar donors in robust one-pot multi-enzyme glycosylation cascades. In this way, large glycans and glycoconjugates with complex stereochemistry can be constructed. With recent advances, LeLoir glycosyltransferases are close to being applied industrially in multi-enzyme, programmable cascade glycosylations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luuk Mestrom
- Department of Biotechnology, Delft University of Technology, Section Biocatalysis, Van der Maasweg 9, 2629 HZ Delft, The Netherlands.
| | - Marta Przypis
- Department of Organic Chemistry, Bioorganic Chemistry and Biotechnology, Silesian University of Technology, B. Krzywoustego 4, 44-100 Gliwice, Poland.
- Biotechnology Center, Silesian University of Technology, B. Krzywoustego 8, 44-100 Gliwice, Poland.
| | - Daria Kowalczykiewicz
- Department of Organic Chemistry, Bioorganic Chemistry and Biotechnology, Silesian University of Technology, B. Krzywoustego 4, 44-100 Gliwice, Poland.
- Biotechnology Center, Silesian University of Technology, B. Krzywoustego 8, 44-100 Gliwice, Poland.
| | - André Pollender
- Environmental Microbiology, Institute of Biosciences, TU Bergakademie Freiberg, Leipziger Str. 29, 09599 Freiberg, Germany.
| | - Antje Kumpf
- Environmental Microbiology, Institute of Biosciences, TU Bergakademie Freiberg, Leipziger Str. 29, 09599 Freiberg, Germany.
- Microbial Biotechnology, Faculty of Biology & Biotechnology, Ruhr-Universität Bochum, Universitätsstr. 150, 44780 Bochum, Germany.
| | - Stefan R Marsden
- Department of Biotechnology, Delft University of Technology, Section Biocatalysis, Van der Maasweg 9, 2629 HZ Delft, The Netherlands.
| | - Isabel Bento
- EMBL Hamburg, Notkestraβe 85, 22607 Hamburg, Germany.
| | - Andrzej B Jarzębski
- Institute of Chemical Engineering, Polish Academy of Sciences, Bałtycka 5, 44-100 Gliwice, Poland.
| | - Katarzyna Szymańska
- Department of Chemical and Process Engineering, Silesian University of Technology, Ks. M. Strzody 7, 44-100 Gliwice, Poland.
| | | | - Dirk Tischler
- Environmental Microbiology, Institute of Biosciences, TU Bergakademie Freiberg, Leipziger Str. 29, 09599 Freiberg, Germany.
- Microbial Biotechnology, Faculty of Biology & Biotechnology, Ruhr-Universität Bochum, Universitätsstr. 150, 44780 Bochum, Germany.
| | - Rob Schoevaart
- ChiralVision, J.H. Oortweg 21, 2333 CH Leiden, The Netherlands.
| | - Ulf Hanefeld
- Department of Biotechnology, Delft University of Technology, Section Biocatalysis, Van der Maasweg 9, 2629 HZ Delft, The Netherlands.
| | - Peter-Leon Hagedoorn
- Department of Biotechnology, Delft University of Technology, Section Biocatalysis, Van der Maasweg 9, 2629 HZ Delft, The Netherlands.
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13
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Zhang Z, Nie D, Fan K, Yang J, Guo W, Meng J, Zhao Z, Han Z. A systematic review of plant-conjugated masked mycotoxins: Occurrence, toxicology, and metabolism. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr 2019; 60:1523-1537. [DOI: 10.1080/10408398.2019.1578944] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Zhiqi Zhang
- Institute for Agro-food Standards and Testing Technology, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Protected Horticultural Technology, Shanghai Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Shanghai, China
| | - Dongxia Nie
- Institute for Agro-food Standards and Testing Technology, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Protected Horticultural Technology, Shanghai Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Shanghai, China
| | - Kai Fan
- Institute for Agro-food Standards and Testing Technology, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Protected Horticultural Technology, Shanghai Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Shanghai, China
| | - Junhua Yang
- Institute for Agro-food Standards and Testing Technology, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Protected Horticultural Technology, Shanghai Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Shanghai, China
| | - Wenbo Guo
- Institute for Agro-food Standards and Testing Technology, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Protected Horticultural Technology, Shanghai Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Shanghai, China
| | - Jiajia Meng
- Institute for Agro-food Standards and Testing Technology, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Protected Horticultural Technology, Shanghai Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Shanghai, China
| | - Zhihui Zhao
- Institute for Agro-food Standards and Testing Technology, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Protected Horticultural Technology, Shanghai Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Shanghai, China
| | - Zheng Han
- Institute for Agro-food Standards and Testing Technology, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Protected Horticultural Technology, Shanghai Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Shanghai, China
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Nguyen N, Varga E, Maragos C, Baumgartner S, Adam G, Berthiller F. Cross-reactivity of commercial and non-commercial deoxynivalenol-antibodies to emerging trichothecenes and common deoxynivalenol-derivatives. WORLD MYCOTOXIN J 2019. [DOI: 10.3920/wmj2018.2363] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Immunoassay based techniques are an important and fast option for the detection and quantification of mycotoxins. They are frequently used as on-site screening tools in grain elevators, storage and production facilities. However, accurate quantification may be hampered by the co-recognition of structurally related metabolites by the used antibodies. Therefore, it is crucial to assess their cross-reactivity to avoid misinterpretation of the results. Several immunoassays for the determination of deoxynivalenol (DON) are commercially available. Recently, novel trichothecene mycotoxins with structures similar to DON, the NX-toxins (NX-2, NX-3 and NX-4), were discovered, which can potentially co-occur with DON in cereals. So far, no data about the cross-reactivity of those toxins with DON-antibodies are available. The aim of this study was to assess the cross-reactivities of NX-toxins and some other DON-related metabolites with DON-antibodies in buffer solutions. Six commercially available enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISAs) and two previously developed DON-antibodies (Mab#1 and Mab#22) were tested. Cross-reactivity with NX-metabolites was not observed for any of the ELISA-kits nor Mab#22, whereas Mab#1 reacted moderately against NX-3 and NX-4 (cross-reactivity based on a molar basis of 14 and 30%, respectively). Modifications at position C-3 (3-acetyl-DON and DON-3-glucoside) led to moderate or high cross-reactivity with Mab#22 and the commercial ELISA-kits, whereas these compounds were not recognised by Mab#1. Similar to NX-metabolites, 15-acetyl-DON interacted only weakly with Mab#22 and the commercial ELISA-kits, but strongly with Mab#1. The results demonstrate the importance of proper antibody characterisation. If NX-metabolites prove to be widely distributed and reach significant levels, the development of specific antibodies targeting these novel metabolites might become necessary.
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Affiliation(s)
- N.T. Nguyen
- Department of Applied Genetics and Cell Biology, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna, (BOKU), Konrad Lorenz Str. 24, 3430 Tulln, Austria
| | - E. Varga
- Department of Agrobiotechnology (IFA-Tulln), Center for Analytical Chemistry, BOKU, Konrad Lorenz Str. 20, 3430 Tulln, Austria
| | - C. Maragos
- Mycotoxin Prevention and Applied Microbiology Research Unit, USDA, ARS National Center for Agricultural Utilization Research, 1815 N. University St., Peoria, IL 61604, USA
| | - S. Baumgartner
- Department of Agrobiotechnology (IFA-Tulln), Center for Analytical Chemistry, BOKU, Konrad Lorenz Str. 20, 3430 Tulln, Austria
| | - G. Adam
- Department of Applied Genetics and Cell Biology, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna, (BOKU), Konrad Lorenz Str. 24, 3430 Tulln, Austria
| | - F. Berthiller
- Department of Agrobiotechnology (IFA-Tulln), Center for Analytical Chemistry, BOKU, Konrad Lorenz Str. 20, 3430 Tulln, Austria
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15
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Schmidt HS, Schulz M, Focke C, Becker S, Cramer B, Humpf HU. Glucosylation of T-2 and HT-2 toxins using biotransformation and chemical synthesis: Preparation, stereochemistry, and stability. Mycotoxin Res 2018; 34:159-172. [PMID: 29511991 PMCID: PMC6061246 DOI: 10.1007/s12550-018-0310-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2017] [Revised: 02/14/2018] [Accepted: 02/15/2018] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Plant-derived phase II metabolites of T-2 toxin (T2) and HT-2 toxin (HT2) were first described in 2011 and further characterized in the following years. Since then, some efforts have been made to understand their biosynthesis, occurrence, toxicity, toxicokinetics, and finally relevance for consumers. Thus, the probably most important question is whether and how these metabolites contribute to toxicity upon hydrolysis either during food processing or the gastrointestinal passage. To answer this question, firstly, knowledge on the correct stereochemistry of T2 and HT2 glucosides is important as this affects hydrolysis and chemical behavior. So far, contradictory results have been published concerning the number and anomericity of occurring glucosides. For this reason, we set up different strategies for the synthesis of mg-amounts of T2, HT2, and T2 triol glucosides in both α and ß configuration. All synthesized glucosides were fully characterized by NMR spectroscopy as well as mass spectrometry and used as references for the analysis of naturally contaminated food samples to validate or invalidate their natural occurrence. Generally, 3-O-glucosylation was observed with two anomers of HT2 glucoside being present in contaminated oats. In contrast, only one anomer of T2 glucoside was found. The second aspect of this study addresses the stability of the glucosides during thermal food processing. Oat flour was artificially contaminated with T2 and HT2 glucosides individually and extruded at varying initial moisture content and temperature. All four glucosides appear to be more stable during food extrusion than the parent compounds with the glucosidic bond not being hydrolyzed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Henning Sören Schmidt
- Institute of Food Chemistry, Westfälische Wilhelms-Universität Münster, Corrensstrasse 45, 48149, Münster, Germany
| | - Mareike Schulz
- Institute of Food Chemistry, Westfälische Wilhelms-Universität Münster, Corrensstrasse 45, 48149, Münster, Germany
| | - Christine Focke
- Institute of Food Chemistry, Westfälische Wilhelms-Universität Münster, Corrensstrasse 45, 48149, Münster, Germany
| | - Stefanie Becker
- Institute of Food Chemistry, Westfälische Wilhelms-Universität Münster, Corrensstrasse 45, 48149, Münster, Germany
| | - Benedikt Cramer
- Institute of Food Chemistry, Westfälische Wilhelms-Universität Münster, Corrensstrasse 45, 48149, Münster, Germany
| | - Hans-Ulrich Humpf
- Institute of Food Chemistry, Westfälische Wilhelms-Universität Münster, Corrensstrasse 45, 48149, Münster, Germany.
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16
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Porcine Small and Large Intestinal Microbiota Rapidly Hydrolyze the Masked Mycotoxin Deoxynivalenol-3-Glucoside and Release Deoxynivalenol in Spiked Batch Cultures In Vitro. Appl Environ Microbiol 2018; 84:AEM.02106-17. [PMID: 29101203 DOI: 10.1128/aem.02106-17] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/22/2017] [Accepted: 10/30/2017] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Mycotoxin contamination of cereal grains causes well-recognized toxicities in animals and humans, but the fate of plant-bound masked mycotoxins in the gut is less well understood. Masked mycotoxins have been found to be stable under conditions prevailing in the small intestine but are rapidly hydrolyzed by fecal microbiota. This study aims to assess the hydrolysis of the masked mycotoxin deoxynivalenol-3-glucoside (DON3Glc) by the microbiota of different regions of the porcine intestinal tract. Intestinal digesta samples were collected from the jejunum, ileum, cecum, colon, and feces of 5 pigs and immediately frozen under anaerobic conditions. Sample slurries were prepared in M2 culture medium, spiked with DON3Glc or free deoxynivalenol (DON; 2 nmol/ml), and incubated anaerobically for up to 72 h. Mycotoxin concentrations were determined using liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry, and the microbiota composition was determined using a quantitative PCR methodology. The jejunal microbiota hydrolyzed DON3Glc very slowly, while samples from the ileum, cecum, colon, and feces rapidly and efficiently hydrolyzed DON3Glc. No further metabolism of DON was observed in any sample. The microbial load and microbiota composition in the ileum were significantly different from those in the distal intestinal regions, whereas those in the cecum, colon and feces did not differ.IMPORTANCE Results from this study clearly demonstrate that the masked mycotoxin DON3Glc is hydrolyzed efficiently in the distal small intestine and large intestine of pigs. Once DON is released, toxicity and absorption in the distal intestinal tract likely occur in vivo This study further supports the need to include masked metabolites in mycotoxin risk assessments and regulatory actions for feed and food.
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17
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Modified mycotoxins: An updated review on their formation, detection, occurrence, and toxic effects. Food Chem Toxicol 2017; 111:189-205. [PMID: 29158197 DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2017.11.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 174] [Impact Index Per Article: 24.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2017] [Revised: 11/13/2017] [Accepted: 11/14/2017] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Abstract
Modified mycotoxins are metabolites that normally remain undetected during the testing for parent mycotoxin. These modified forms of mycotoxins can be produced by fungi or generated as part of the defense mechanism of the infected plant. In some cases, they are formed during food processing. The various processing steps greatly affect mycotoxin levels present in the final product (free and modified), although the results are still controversial regarding the increase or reduction of these levels, being strongly related to the type of process and the composition of the food in question. Evidence exists that some modified mycotoxins can be converted into the parent mycotoxin during digestion in humans and animals, potentially leading to adverse health effects. Some of these formed compounds can be even more toxic, in case they have higher bioaccessibility and bioavailability than the parent mycotoxin. The modified mycotoxins can occur simultaneously with the free mycotoxin, and, in some cases, the concentration of modified mycotoxins may exceed the level of free mycotoxin in processed foods. Even though toxicological data are scarce, the possibility of modified mycotoxin conversion to its free form may result in a potential risk to human and animal health. This review aims to update information on the formation, detection, occurrence, and toxic effects caused by modified mycotoxin.
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18
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Knutsen HK, Alexander J, Barregård L, Bignami M, Brüschweiler B, Ceccatelli S, Cottrill B, Dinovi M, Grasl-Kraupp B, Hogstrand C, Hoogenboom LR, Nebbia CS, Oswald IP, Petersen A, Rose M, Roudot AC, Schwerdtle T, Vleminckx C, Vollmer G, Wallace H, De Saeger S, Eriksen GS, Farmer P, Fremy JM, Gong YY, Meyer K, Naegeli H, Parent-Massin D, Rietjens I, van Egmond H, Altieri A, Eskola M, Gergelova P, Ramos Bordajandi L, Benkova B, Dörr B, Gkrillas A, Gustavsson N, van Manen M, Edler L. Risks to human and animal health related to the presence of deoxynivalenol and its acetylated and modified forms in food and feed. EFSA J 2017; 15:e04718. [PMID: 32625635 PMCID: PMC7010102 DOI: 10.2903/j.efsa.2017.4718] [Citation(s) in RCA: 155] [Impact Index Per Article: 22.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Deoxynivalenol (DON) is a mycotoxin primarily produced by Fusarium fungi, occurring predominantly in cereal grains. Following the request of the European Commission, the CONTAM Panel assessed the risk to animal and human health related to DON, 3-acetyl-DON (3-Ac-DON), 15-acetyl-DON (15-Ac-DON) and DON-3-glucoside in food and feed. A total of 27,537, 13,892, 7,270 and 2,266 analytical data for DON, 3-Ac-DON, 15-Ac-DON and DON-3-glucoside, respectively, in food, feed and unprocessed grains collected from 2007 to 2014 were used. For human exposure, grains and grain-based products were main sources, whereas in farm and companion animals, cereal grains, cereal by-products and forage maize contributed most. DON is rapidly absorbed, distributed, and excreted. Since 3-Ac-DON and 15-Ac-DON are largely deacetylated and DON-3-glucoside cleaved in the intestines the same toxic effects as DON can be expected. The TDI of 1 μg/kg bw per day, that was established for DON based on reduced body weight gain in mice, was therefore used as a group-TDI for the sum of DON, 3-Ac-DON, 15-Ac-DON and DON-3-glucoside. In order to assess acute human health risk, epidemiological data from mycotoxicoses were assessed and a group-ARfD of 8 μg/kg bw per eating occasion was calculated. Estimates of acute dietary exposures were below this dose and did not raise a health concern in humans. The estimated mean chronic dietary exposure was above the group-TDI in infants, toddlers and other children, and at high exposure also in adolescents and adults, indicating a potential health concern. Based on estimated mean dietary concentrations in ruminants, poultry, rabbits, dogs and cats, most farmed fish species and horses, adverse effects are not expected. At the high dietary concentrations, there is a potential risk for chronic adverse effects in pigs and fish and for acute adverse effects in cats and farmed mink.
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19
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Do Plant-Bound Masked Mycotoxins Contribute to Toxicity? Toxins (Basel) 2017; 9:toxins9030085. [PMID: 28264486 PMCID: PMC5371840 DOI: 10.3390/toxins9030085] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/02/2017] [Revised: 02/15/2017] [Accepted: 02/27/2017] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Masked mycotoxins are plant metabolites of mycotoxins which co-contaminate common cereal crops. Since their discovery, the question has arisen if they contribute to toxicity either directly or indirectly through the release of the parent mycotoxins. Research in this field is rapidly emerging and the aim of this review is to summarize the latest knowledge on the fate of masked mycotoxins upon ingestion. Fusarium mycotoxins are the most prevalent masked mycotoxins and evidence is mounting that DON3Glc and possibly other masked trichothecenes are stable in conditions prevailing in the upper gut and are not absorbed intact. DON3Glc is also not toxic per se, but is hydrolyzed by colonic microbes and further metabolized to DOM-1 in some individuals. Masked zearalenone is rather more bio-reactive with some evidence on gastric and small intestinal hydrolysis as well as hydrolysis by intestinal epithelium and components of blood. Microbial hydrolysis of ZEN14Glc is almost instantaneous and further metabolism also occurs. Identification of zearalenone metabolites and their fate in the colon are still missing as is further clarification on whether or not masked zearalenone is hydrolyzed by mammalian cells. New masked mycotoxins continuously emerge and it is crucial that we gain detailed understanding of their individual metabolic fate in the body before we can assess synergistic effects and extrapolate the additive risk of all mycotoxins present in food.
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20
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Michlmayr H, Varga E, Lupi F, Malachová A, Hametner C, Berthiller F, Adam G. Synthesis of Mono- and Di-Glucosides of Zearalenone and α-/β-Zearalenol by Recombinant Barley Glucosyltransferase HvUGT14077. Toxins (Basel) 2017; 9:E58. [PMID: 28208765 PMCID: PMC5331437 DOI: 10.3390/toxins9020058] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/12/2016] [Revised: 02/02/2017] [Accepted: 02/06/2017] [Indexed: 01/25/2023] Open
Abstract
Zearalenone (ZEN) is an estrogenic mycotoxin occurring in Fusarium-infected cereals. Glucosylation is an important plant defense mechanism and generally reduces the acute toxicity of mycotoxins to humans and animals. Toxicological information about ZEN-glucosides is limited due to the unavailability of larger amounts required for animal studies. HvUGT14077, a recently-validated ZEN-conjugating barley UDP-glucosyltransferase was expressed in Escherichia coli, affinity purified, and characterized. HvUGT14077 possesses high affinity (Km = 3 µM) and catalytic efficiency (kcat/Km = 190 s-1·mM-1) with ZEN. It also efficiently glucosylates the phase-I ZEN-metabolites α-zearalenol and β-zearalenol, with kcat/Km of 40 and 74 s-1·mM-1, respectively. HvUGT14077 catalyzes O-glucosylation at C-14 and C-16 with preference of 14-glucoside synthesis. Furthermore, relatively slow consecutive formation of 14,16-di-glucosides was observed; their structures were tentatively identified by mass spectrometry and for ZEN-14,16-di-glucoside confirmed by nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy. Recombinant HvUGT14077 allowed efficient preparative synthesis of ZEN-glucosides, yielding about 90% ZEN-14-glucoside and 10% ZEN-16-glucoside. The yield of ZEN-16-glucoside could be increased to 85% by co-incubation with a β-glucosidase highly selective for ZEN-14-glucoside. Depletion of the co-substrate UDP-glucose was counteracted by a sucrose synthase based regeneration system. This strategy could also be of interest to increase the yield of minor glucosides synthesized by other glucosyltransferases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Herbert Michlmayr
- Department of Applied Genetics and Cell Biology, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna (BOKU), Konrad Lorenz Straße 24, 3430 Tulln, Austria.
- Department of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, University of Vienna, Währinger Straße 38, 1090 Vienna, Austria.
| | - Elisabeth Varga
- Center for Analytical Chemistry and Christian Doppler Laboratory for Mycotoxin Metabolism, Department of Agrobiotechnology (IFA-Tulln), BOKU, Konrad Lorenz Straße 20, 3430 Tulln, Austria.
| | - Francesca Lupi
- Center for Analytical Chemistry and Christian Doppler Laboratory for Mycotoxin Metabolism, Department of Agrobiotechnology (IFA-Tulln), BOKU, Konrad Lorenz Straße 20, 3430 Tulln, Austria.
- Dipartimento di Scienze Agrarie, degli Alimenti e dell'Ambiente, Università degli Studi di Foggia, Via-Napoli 25, 71122 Foggia, Italy.
| | - Alexandra Malachová
- Center for Analytical Chemistry and Christian Doppler Laboratory for Mycotoxin Metabolism, Department of Agrobiotechnology (IFA-Tulln), BOKU, Konrad Lorenz Straße 20, 3430 Tulln, Austria.
| | - Christian Hametner
- Institute of Applied Synthetic Chemistry, Vienna University of Technology, Getreidemarkt 9/163, 1060 Vienna, Austria.
| | - Franz Berthiller
- Center for Analytical Chemistry and Christian Doppler Laboratory for Mycotoxin Metabolism, Department of Agrobiotechnology (IFA-Tulln), BOKU, Konrad Lorenz Straße 20, 3430 Tulln, Austria.
| | - Gerhard Adam
- Department of Applied Genetics and Cell Biology, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna (BOKU), Konrad Lorenz Straße 24, 3430 Tulln, Austria.
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Study on the uptake and deglycosylation of the masked forms of zearalenone in human intestinal Caco-2 cells. Food Chem Toxicol 2016; 98:232-239. [DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2016.11.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2016] [Revised: 10/02/2016] [Accepted: 11/01/2016] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
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22
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Ruiz L, Delgado S, Ruas-Madiedo P, Margolles A, Sánchez B. Proteinaceous Molecules Mediating Bifidobacterium-Host Interactions. Front Microbiol 2016; 7:1193. [PMID: 27536282 PMCID: PMC4971063 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2016.01193] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2016] [Accepted: 07/19/2016] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Bifidobacteria are commensal microoganisms found in the gastrointestinal tract. Several strains have been attributed beneficial traits at local and systemic levels, through pathogen exclusion or immune modulation, among other benefits. This has promoted a growing industrial and scientific interest in bifidobacteria as probiotic supplements. However, the molecular mechanisms mediating this cross-talk with the human host remain unknown. High-throughput technologies, from functional genomics to transcriptomics, proteomics, and interactomics coupled to the development of both in vitro and in vivo models to study the dynamics of the intestinal microbiota and their effects on host cells, have eased the identification of key molecules in these interactions. Numerous secreted or surface-associated proteins or peptides have been identified as potential mediators of bifidobacteria-host interactions and molecular cross-talk, directly participating in sensing environmental factors, promoting intestinal colonization, or mediating a dialogue with mucosa-associated immune cells. On the other hand, bifidobacteria induce the production of proteins in the intestine, by epithelial or immune cells, and other gut bacteria, which are key elements in orchestrating interactions among bifidobacteria, gut microbiota, and host cells. This review aims to give a comprehensive overview on proteinaceous molecules described and characterized to date, as mediators of the dynamic interplay between bifidobacteria and the human host, providing a framework to identify knowledge gaps and future research needs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lorena Ruiz
- Department of Nutrition, Food Science and Food Technology, Universidad Complutense de Madrid Spain
| | - Susana Delgado
- Department of Microbiology and Biochemistry of Dairy Products, Instituto de Productos Lácteos de Asturias-Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas Villaviciosa, Spain
| | - Patricia Ruas-Madiedo
- Department of Microbiology and Biochemistry of Dairy Products, Instituto de Productos Lácteos de Asturias-Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas Villaviciosa, Spain
| | - Abelardo Margolles
- Department of Microbiology and Biochemistry of Dairy Products, Instituto de Productos Lácteos de Asturias-Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas Villaviciosa, Spain
| | - Borja Sánchez
- Department of Microbiology and Biochemistry of Dairy Products, Instituto de Productos Lácteos de Asturias-Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas Villaviciosa, Spain
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23
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Critical evaluation of indirect methods for the determination of deoxynivalenol and its conjugated forms in cereals. Anal Bioanal Chem 2015; 407:6009-20. [PMID: 26065425 PMCID: PMC4512270 DOI: 10.1007/s00216-015-8793-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/03/2015] [Revised: 05/18/2015] [Accepted: 05/19/2015] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Abstract
A critical assessment of three previously published indirect methods based on acidic hydrolysis using superacids for the determination of “free” and “total” deoxynivalenol (DON) was carried out. The modified mycotoxins DON-3-glucoside (D3G), 3-acetyl-DON (3ADON), and 15-acetyl-DON (15ADON) were chosen as model analytes. The initial experiments focused on the stability/degradation of DON under hydrolytic conditions and the ability to release DON from the modified forms. Acidic conditions that were capable of cleaving D3G, 3ADON, and 15ADON to DON were not found, raising doubts over the efficacy of previously published indirect methods for total DON determination. Validation of these indirect methods for wheat, maize, and barley using UHPLC-MS/MS was performed in order to test the accuracy of the generated results. Validation data for DON, D3G, 3ADON, and 15ADON in nonhydrolyzed and hydrolyzed matrices were obtained. Under the tested conditions, DON was not released from D3G, 3ADON, or 15ADON after hydrolysis and thus none of the published methods were able to cleave the modified forms of DON. In addition to acids, alkaline hydrolysis with KOH for an extended time and at elevated temperatures was also tested. 3ADON and 15ADON were cleaved under the alkaline pH caused by the addition of KOH or aqueous K2CO3 to “neutralize” the acidic sample extracts in the published studies. The published additional DON increase after hydrolysis may have been caused by huge differences in matrix effects and the recovery of DON in nonhydrolyzed and hydrolyzed matrices as well as by the alkaline cleavage of 3ADON or 15ADON after the neutralization of hydrolyzed extracts.
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