Identification of a heroin esterase in Rhodococcus sp. strain H1

The role of microorganisms in the biotransformation of psychoactive substances and its forensic relevance: a critical interdisciplinary review

Microorganisms are widespread on the planet being able to adapt, persist, and grow in diverse environments, either rich in nutrient sources or under harsh conditions. The comprehension of the interaction between microorganisms and drugs is relevant for forensic toxicology and forensic chemistry, elucidating potential pathways of microbial metabolism and their implications. Considering the described scenario, this paper aims to provide a comprehensive and critical review of the state of the art of interactions amongst microorganisms and common drugs of abuse. Additionally, other drugs of forensic interest are briefly discussed. This paper outlines the importance of this area of investigation, covering the intersections between forensic microbiology, forensic chemistry, and forensic toxicology applied to drugs of abuse, and it also highlights research potentialities.

Key points

Microorganisms are widespread on the planet and grow in a myriad of environments.Microorganisms can often be found in matrices of forensic interest.Drugs can be metabolized or produced (e.g. ethanol) by microorganisms.

Recent advances in immunosensor for narcotic drug detection

INTRODUCTION

Immunosensor for illicit drugs have gained immense interest and have found several applications for drug abuse monitoring. This technology has offered a low cost detection of narcotics; thereby, providing a confirmatory platform to compliment the existing analytical methods.

METHODS

In this minireview, we define the basic concept of transducer for immunosensor development that utilizes antibodies and low molecular mass hapten (opiate) molecules.

RESULTS

This article emphasizes on recent advances in immunoanalytical techniques for monitoring of opiate drugs. Our results demonstrate that high quality antibodies can be used for immunosensor development against target analyte with greater sensitivity, specificity and precision than other available analytical methods.

CONCLUSION

In this review we highlight the fundamentals of different transducer technologies and its applications for immunosensor development currently being developed in our laboratory using rapid screening via immunochromatographic kit, label free optical detection via enzyme, fluorescence, gold nanoparticles and carbon nanotubes based immunosensing for sensitive and specific monitoring of opiates.

Isolation and biochemical characterization of two novel metagenome-derived esterases

The metagenomes of uncultured microbial communities are rich sources for novel biocatalysts. In this study, esterase EstA3 was derived from a drinking water metagenome, and esterase EstCE1 was derived from a soil metagenome. Both esterases are approximately 380 amino acids in size and show similarity to beta-lactamases, indicating that they belong to family VIII of the lipases/esterases. EstA3 had a temperature optimum at 50 degrees C and a pH optimum at pH 9.0. It was remarkably active and very stable in the presence of solvents and over a wide temperature and pH range. It is active in a multimeric form and displayed a high level of activity against a wide range of substrates including one secondary ester, 7-[3-octylcarboxy-(3-hydroxy-3-methyl-butyloxy)]-coumarin, which is normally unreactive. EstCE1 was active in the monomeric form and had a temperature optimum at 47 degrees C and a pH optimum at pH 10. It exhibited the same level of stability as EstA3 over wide temperature and pH ranges and in the presence of dimethyl sulfoxide, isopropanol, and methanol. EstCE1 was highly enantioselective for (+)-menthylacetate. These enzymes display remarkable characteristics that cannot be related to the original environment from which they were derived. The high level of stability of these enzymes together with their unique substrate specificities make them highly useful for biotechnological applications.

Biotransformation of alkaloids

Biotransformations of alkaloids over the last decade have continued to encompass a wide variety of substrates and enzymes. The elucidation of novel alkaloid biosynthetic and catabolic pathways will continue to furnish new biocatalysts for the synthetic organic chemist. Furthermore, an improved understanding of the genetic and biochemical basis of metabolic pathways will also permit the engineering of pathways in plants and other heterologous hosts for the production of therapeutically important alkaloids. The combination of increasing commercial interest and advances in molecular biology will facilitate the availability of robust biocatalysts which are a prerequsite to achieve economically feasible processes for the production of alkaloid-based therapeutics.

Observation of an arsenic adduct in an acetyl esterase crystal structure

The crystal structures of an acetyl esterase, HerE, and its complex with an inhibitor dimethylarsinic acid have been determined at 1.30- and 1.45-A resolution, respectively. Although the natural substrate for the enzyme is unknown, HerE hydrolyzes the acetyl groups from heroin to yield morphine and from phenyl acetate to yield phenol. Recently, the activity of the enzyme toward heroin has been exploited to develop a heroin biosensor, which affords higher sensitivity than other currently available detection methods. The crystal structure reveals a single domain with the canonical alpha/beta hydrolase fold with an acyl binding pocket that snugly accommodates the acetyl substituent of the substrate and three backbone amides that form a tripartite oxyanion hole. In addition, a covalent adduct was observed between the active site serine and dimethylarsinic acid, which inhibits the enzyme. This crystal structure provides the first example of an As-containing compound in a serine esterase active site and the first example of covalent modification of serine by arsenic. Thus, the HerE complex reveals the structural basis for the broad scope inhibition of serine hydrolases by As(V)-containing organic compounds.

Biotransformation of alkaloids

Biotransformations of alkaloids over the last decade have continued to encompass a wide variety of substrates and enzymes. The elucidation of novel alkaloid biosynthetic and catabolic pathways will continue to furnish new biocatalysts for the synthetic organic chemist. Furthermore, an improved understanding of the genetic and biochemical basis of metabolic pathways will also permit the engineering of pathways in plants and other heterologous hosts for the production of therapeutically important alkaloids. The combination of increasing commercial interest and advances in molecular biology will facilitate the availability of robust biocatalysts which are a prerequsite to achieve economically feasible processes for the production of alkaloid-based therapeutics.

Gene cloning and nucleotide sequencing and properties of a cocaine esterase from Rhodococcus sp. strain MB1

A strain of Rhodococcus designated MB1, which was capable of utilizing cocaine as a sole source of carbon and nitrogen for growth, was isolated from rhizosphere soil of the tropane alkaloid-producing plant Erythroxylum coca. A cocaine esterase was found to initiate degradation of cocaine, which was hydrolyzed to ecgonine methyl ester and benzoate; both of these esterolytic products were further metabolized by Rhodococcus sp. strain MB1. The structural gene encoding a cocaine esterase, designated cocE, was cloned from Rhodococcus sp. strain MB1 genomic libraries by screening recombinant strains of Rhodococcus erythropolis CW25 for growth on cocaine. The nucleotide sequence of cocE corresponded to an open reading frame of 1,724 bp that codes for a protein of 574 amino acids. The amino acid sequence of cocaine esterase has a region of similarity with the active serine consensus of X-prolyl dipeptidyl aminopeptidases, suggesting that the cocaine esterase is a serine esterase. The cocE coding sequence was subcloned into the pCFX1 expression plasmid and expressed in Escherichia coli. The recombinant cocaine esterase was purified to apparent homogeneity and was found to be monomeric, with an M(r) of approximately 65,000. The apparent K(m) of the enzyme (mean +/- standard deviation) for cocaine was measured as 1.33 +/- 0.085 mM. These findings are of potential use in the development of a linked assay for the detection of illicit cocaine.

Metabolism of phenylbenzoate by Pseudomonas sp. strain TR3

A bacterial isolate, tentatively identified as Pseudomonas sp. strain TR3, was found to utilize the diaryl ester phenylbenzoate as sole source of carbon and energy. This strain has the ability to productively degrade phenylbenzoate and some substituted derivatives by a catabolic sequence which was characterized biochemically. The biodegradation of phenylbenzoate is thus initiated by an inducible esterase, effectively hydrolyzing the diaryl esters to produce stoichiometric amounts of two monoaromatic metabolites, identified as benzoate and phenol in the case of phenylbenzoate. The diaryl ester p-tolylbenzoate was hydrolyzed to yield benzoate and 4-methylphenol while 4-chlorophenylbenzoate gave rise to the production of benzoate and 4-chlorophenol. These monoaromatic catabolites were further degraded via the oxoadipate pathway.

Molecular analysis of the Rhodococcus sp. strain H1 her gene and characterization of its product, a heroin esterase, expressed in Escherichia coli

The structural gene for heroin esterase was cloned from Rhodococcus sp. strain H1 and expressed in Escherichia coli BL21(DE3). The purified enzyme was found to be a tetramer with an M(r) of 137,000 and an apparent K(m) of 0.88 mM for 6-acetylmorphine. The G-x-S-x-G motif was observed in the deduced amino acid sequence, suggesting that the enzyme is a serin esterase.

Bioluminescent assay for heroin and its metabolites

Illicit heroin is trafficked as a solid particulate drug, while heroin abuse is monitored by testing urine samples for its principal metabolites, morphine and morphine-3-glucuronide. Two novel bacterial enzymes were used in the development of a linked-enzyme assay for heroin and its metabolites: heroin esterase, which converts heroin to morphine, and morphine dehydrogenase, which oxidizes morphine to morphinone with the concomitant reduction of NADP+. A bioluminescent assay involving heroin esterase, morphine dehydrogenase, and the bacterial luciferase from Vibrio harveyi was developed and shown to be sensitive to 89 ng/mL heroin and 2.0 ng/mL morphine. Excellent correlation with the results from 83 authentic samples submitted for urine drug screening at a hospital laboratory was obtained. The bioluminescent assay exhibited greater specificity and speed than current immunological screening methods. A novel format of the bioluminescent assay involving immobilized enzymes was sensitive to 101 ng (250 pmol) of heroin and responded well to particulate heroin. This form of the test was sensitive enough to respond to one or two typical particles of illicit heroin.

Bacterial morphinone reductase is related to Old Yellow Enzyme

Morphinone reductase, produced by Pseudomonas putida M10, catalyses the NADH-dependent saturation of the carbon-carbon double bond of morphinone and codeinone, and is believed to be involved in the metabolism of morphine and codeine. The structural gene encoding morphinone reductase, designated morB, was cloned from Ps. putida M10 genomic DNA by the use of degenerate oligonucleotide probes based on elements of the amino acid sequence of the purified enzyme. Sequence analysis and structural characteristics indicated that morphinone reductase is related to the flavoprotein alpha/beta-barrel oxidoreductases, and is particularly similar to Old Yellow Enzyme of Saccharomyces spp. and the related oestrogen-binding protein of Candida albicans. Expressed sequence tags from several plant species show high homology to these enzymes, suggesting the presence of a family of enzymes conserved in plants and fungi. Although related bacterial proteins are known, morphinone reductase appears to be more similar to the eukaryotic proteins. Morphinone reductase was overexpressed in Escherichia coli, and has potential applications for the industrial preparation of semisynthetic opiates.

Biological production of semisynthetic opiates using genetically engineered bacteria

Semisynthetic derivatives of morphine and related alkaloids are in widespread clinical use. Due to the complexity of these molecules, however, chemical transformations are difficult to achieve in high yields. We recently identified the powerful analgesic hydromorphone as an intermediate in the metabolism of morphine by Pseudomonas putida M10. Here we describe the construction of recombinant strains of Escherichia coli that express morphine dehydrogenase and morphinone reductase. These strains are capable of efficiently transforming the naturally occurring alkaloids morphine and codeine to hydromorphone and the antitussive hydrocodone, respectively. Our results demonstrate the potential for recombinant DNA technology to provide biological routes for the synthesis of known and novel semisynthetic opiate drugs.

An amperometric opiate assay

Current techniques for the detection and measurement of diacetylmorphine (heroin), morphine and their principal metabolite morphine-3-glucuronide (M3G) are based mainly on chromatography or immunoassay. No enzymatic method for the detection of these compounds has yet been reported. Two novel microbial enzymes have been isolated and characterized in this laboratory: an acetylmorphine carboxyesterase (heroin esterase) and a morphine dehydrogenase (MDH). These highly specific enzymes have been incorporated in an amperometric assay for heroin and morphine using phenazine methosulphate as a mediator. The assay gives a rapid and sensitive response to heroin and morphine, with a detection limit for morphine of 6.8 micrograms ml-1 (23.7 microM).