A region in Bacillus subtilis sigmaH required for Spo0A-dependent promoter activity

Promoter activation by repositioning of RNA polymerase

Spo0A, a classical two-component-type response regulator in Bacillus subtilis, binds to a specific DNA sequence found in many promoters to repress or activate the transcription of over 100 genes. On the spoIIG promoter, one of the Spo0A binding sites, centered at position -40, overlaps a consensus -35 element that may also interact with region 4 of the sigma A (sigma(A)) subunit of RNA polymerase. Molecular modeling corroborated by genetic evidence led us to propose that the binding of Spo0A to this site repositions sigma(A) region 4 on the promoter. Therefore, we used a chemical nuclease, p-bromoacetamidobenzyl-EDTA-Fe, that was covalently tethered to a single cysteine in region 4 of sigma(A) to map the position of sigma(A) on the promoter. The results indicated that in the absence of Spo0A, sigma(A) region 4 of the RNA polymerase was located near the -35 element sequence centered at position -40. However, in the presence of Spo0A, sigma(A) region 4 was displaced downstream from the -35 element by 4 bp. These and other results support the model in which the binding of Spo0A to the spoIIG promoter stimulates promoter utilization by repositioning prebound RNA polymerase and stabilizing the repositioned RNA polymerase-promoter complex at a new position that aligns sigma(A) region 2 with the -10 region sequences of the promoter, thus facilitating open complex formation.

Phosphorylation and functional analysis of the sporulation initiation factor Spo0A from Clostridium botulinum

The initiation of sporulation in aerobic Bacillus species is regulated by the phosphorelay consisting of several sensor histidine kinases, the Spo0F response regulator, the Spo0B phosphotransferase and the Spo0A transcription factor that upon phosphorylation represses genes for growth and activates the developmental process. Clostridium species lack both Spo0F and Spo0B and the identities of the sensor histidine kinases are unknown. The amino acid sequence of Spo0A is highly conserved in Clostridium botulinum relative to Bacillus subtilis but the cloned C. botulinum Spo0A was unable to complement a spo0A mutant of B. subtilis for sporulation. However, it was able to repress the abrB gene of B. subtilis. Active site mutations in Spo0A still repressed, indicating this activity was independent of phosphorylation. An orphan sensor histidine kinase of C. botulinum appeared to normally phosphorylate C. botulinum Spo0A and expression of this kinase in combination with C. botulinum Spo0A in B. subtilis was lethal, suggesting phosphorylation of C. botulinum Spo0A repressed essential growth genes as a prerequisite to sporulation but could not compensate for this effect by inducing sporulation. A chimera Spo0A consisting of a B. subtilis Spo0A response regulator domain fused to a C. botulinum DNA-binding domain was capable of restoring sporulation to a spo0A mutant of B. subtilis albeit at less than wild-type levels. The data suggest that induction of sporulation requires interactions of both domains of Spo0A with other conserved proteins and despite the high conservation of the amino acid sequence of C. botulinum Spo0A, some of these interactions have been lost.

Two-vector assay as a tool for examining Spo0A gene transcription regulation

We have modified an assay using two compatible vectors that coexist in Escherichia coli cells and applied it in the investigation of the transcriptional activity of Spo0A, a key regulator of sporulation in Bacillus subtilis. We have chosen the promoters of the Spo0A dependent genes, spoIIE and spoIIA, involved in sporulation, in order to study the transcription activity solely of the DNA binding domain of Spo0A. We have prepared the two-vector system so that one vector contained the cloned C-Spo0A under the control of an inducible promoter, and the second vector (the promoter probe vector), was composed of the Spo0A dependent spoIIE and spoIIA promoters. Using this two-vector system in E. coli, we proved that C-Spo0A is able to interact with the E. coli transcription apparatus, recognizes both promoters and activates transcription from these promoters.

Regulation of sigma factor activity during Bacillus subtilis development

Progression of Bacillus subtilis through a series of morphological changes is driven by a cascade of sigma (sigma) factors and results in formation of a spore. Recent work has provided new insights into the location and function of proteins that control sigma factor activity, and has suggested that multiple mechanisms allow one sigma factor to replace another in the cascade.

The trans-activation domain of the sporulation response regulator Spo0A revealed by X-ray crystallography

Sporulation in Bacillus involves the induction of scores of genes in a temporally and spatially co-ordinated programme of cell development. Its initiation is under the control of an expanded two-component signal transduction system termed a phosphorelay. The master control element in the decision to sporulate is the response regulator, Spo0A, which comprises a receiver or phosphoacceptor domain and an effector or transcription activation domain. The receiver domain of Spo0A shares sequence similarity with numerous response regulators, and its structure has been determined in phosphorylated and unphosphorylated forms. However, the effector domain (C-Spo0A) has no detectable sequence similarity to any other protein, and this lack of structural information is an obstacle to understanding how DNA binding and transcription activation are controlled by phosphorylation in Spo0A. Here, we report the crystal structure of C-Spo0A from Bacillus stearothermophilus revealing a single alpha-helical domain comprising six alpha-helices in an unprecedented fold. The structure contains a helix-turn-helix as part of a three alpha-helical bundle reminiscent of the catabolite gene activator protein (CAP), suggesting a mechanism for DNA binding. The residues implicated in forming the sigmaA-activating region clearly cluster in a flexible segment of the polypeptide on the opposite side of the structure from that predicted to interact with DNA. The structural results are discussed in the context of the rich array of existing mutational data.

Identification of a second region of the Spo0A response regulator of Bacillus subtilis required for transcription activation

Deletion of the 10 C-terminal amino acids of the Bacillus subtilis response regulator Spo0A or valine substitution at D258 and L260 resulted in a sporulation-negative phenotype and loss of in vivo activation of the spoIIG and spoIIA operon promoters. Repression of the abrB promoter was not affected by the mutations. In combination with the previously characterized mutation (A257V), the results identify amino acids at positions 257, 258, and 260 as being required for transcription activation by Spo0A.

A role for Asp75 in domain interactions in the Bacillus subtilis response regulator Spo0A

Spo0A is a two-domain response regulator required for sporulation initiation in Bacillus subtilis. Studies on response regulators have focused on the activity of each domain, but very little is known about the mechanism by which the regulatory domain inhibits the activator domain. In this study, we created a single amino acid substitution in the regulatory domain, D75S, which resulted in a dramatic decrease in sporulation in vivo. In vitro studies with the purified Spo0AD75S protein demonstrated that phosphorylation and DNA binding were comparable with wild type Spo0A. However, the mutant was unable to stimulate transcription by final sigma(A)-RNA polymerase from the Spo0A-dependent spoIIG operon promoter. We suggest that the amino acid Asp(75) and/or the region within which it resides, the alpha3-beta4 loop, are involved in the inhibitory interaction between the regulatory and activator domains of Spo0A.

Interactions between activating region 3 of the Escherichia coli cyclic AMP receptor protein and region 4 of the RNA polymerase sigma(70) subunit: application of suppression genetics

The Escherichia coli cyclic AMP receptor protein, CRP, induces transcription at Class II CRP-dependent promoters by making three different activatory contacts with different surfaces of holo RNA polymerase. One contact surface of CRP, known as Activating Region 3 (AR3), is functional in the downstream subunit of the CRP dimer and is predicted to interact with region 4 of the RNAP sigma(70) subunit. We have previously shown that a mutant CRP derivative that activates transcription primarily via AR3, CRP HL159 KE101 KN52, requires the positively charged residues K593, K597 and R599 in sigma(70) for activation. Here, we have used the positive control substitution, EK58, to disrupt AR3-dependent activation by CRP HL159 KE101 KN52. We then screened random mutant libraries and an alanine scan library of sigma(70) for candidates that restore activation by CRP HL159 KE101 KN52 EK58. We found that changes at R596 and R599 in sigma(70) can restore activation by CRP HL159 KE101 KN52 EK58. This suggests that the side-chains of both R596 and R599 in sigma(70) clash with K58 in CRP. Maximal activation by CRP HL159 KE101 KN52 EK58 is achieved with the substitutions RE596 or RD596 in sigma(70). We propose that there are specific charge-charge interactions between E596 or D596 in sigma(70) and K58 in AR3. Thus, no increase in activation is observed in the presence of another positive control substitution, EG58 (CRP HL159 KE101 KN52 EG58). Similarly, both sigma(70) RE596 and sigma(70) RD596 can restore activation by CRP EK58 but not CRP EG58, and they both decrease activation by wild-type CRP. We suggest that E596 and D596 in sigma(70) can positively interact with K58 in AR3, thereby enhancing activation, but negatively interact with E58, thereby decreasing activation. The substitution, KA52 in AR3 increases Class II CRP-dependent activation by removing an inhibitory lysine residue. However, this increase is not observed in the presence of either sigma(70) RE596 or sigma(70) RD596. We conclude that the inhibitory side-chain, K52 in AR3, clashes with R596 in sigma(70). Finally, we show that the sigma(70) RE596 and RD596 substitutions affect CRP-dependent activation from Class II, but not Class I, promoters.

A new mutation in spo0A with intragenic suppressors in the effector domain

Spo0A is a two domain response regulator, a key protein in the initiation of sporulation of Bacillus subtilis. This protein controls a number of changes in gene expression that occur during the transition from stationary phase to the onset of sporulation. The phosphorylated form of Spo0A influences the transcription of a specific set of genes. In addition to others, it represses abrB and activates spoIIA and spoIIE transcription. Although the N-terminal phosphoacceptor domain is well characterised, there is limited information on the C-terminal, DNA-binding domain. Comparisons of Spo0A homologues from a number of Bacillus and Clostridium species show that the C-terminal domain contains three highly conserved regions. In this study, we have investigated the influence of spo0A mutations mapping within the C-terminal domain on transcription from the abrB, spoIIA and spoIIE promoters using lacZ fusions. Our results indicate that described mutations can be part of signalling between N- and C-terminal domains of the protein. Also, the increased expression observed from the spoIIE promoter in some Spo0A mutants might result from a stabilising function of these mutations on the transcriptional apparatus utilising sigma(A).

A region of sigmaK involved in promoter activation by GerE in Bacillus subtilis

During endospore formation in Bacillus subtilis, the DNA binding protein GerE stimulates transcription from several promoters that are used by RNA polymerase containing sigmaK. GerE binds to a site on one of these promoters, cotX, that overlaps its -35 region. We tested the model that GerE interacts with sigmaK at the cotX promoter by seeking amino acid substitutions in sigmaK that interfered with GerE-dependent activation of the cotX promoter but which did not affect utilization of the sigmaK-dependent, GerE-independent promoter gerE. We identified two amino acid substitutions in sigmaK, E216K and H225Y, that decrease cotX promoter utilization but do not affect gerE promoter activity. Alanine substitutions at these positions had similar effects. We also examined the effects of the E216A and H225Y substitutions in sigmaK on transcription in vitro. We found that these substitutions specifically reduced utilization of the cotX promoter. These and other results suggest that the amino acid residues at positions 216 and 225 are required for GerE-dependent cotX promoter activity, that the histidine at position 225 of sigmaK may interact with GerE at the cotX promoter, and that this interaction may facilitate the initial binding of sigmaK RNA polymerase to the cotX promoter. We also found that the alanine substitutions at positions 216 and 225 of sigmaK had no effect on utilization of the GerE-dependent promoter cotD, which contains GerE binding sites that do not overlap with its -35 region.